We are living in a world in which bi/multilingualism has become commonplace within everyday life for a great number of people. Research has shown that bilingualism produces various cognitive consequences. These effects are generally seen as positive and contributing to an enhanced level of cognitive processing. Bilingualism functions selectively to produce outcome performances depending on the areas that are the subject of investigation. Furthermore, the patterns of results may vary if second-language reading occurs in a dyslexic context. Thus, many children may struggle with this situation, suggesting the need for the provision of a special education agenda in schools. The intention of this dissertation is to address the abovementioned topics. In study I, the effect of bilingualism on lexical vs. non-lexical reading tasks is examined. This study finds that the pattern of the effect might vary based on the type of reading task (e.g., semantic or phonological origins for information processing). In studies II and III, the combined effect of bilingualism and reading difficulties on executive functions (working memory, inhibitory control and flexibility) and on longterm memory (episodic and semantic) is examined. These studies find that, in line with primary expectations, bilingualism in typically developed reading is associated with enhanced overall cognitive performance in either executive functioning or episodic and semantic memory. Interestingly, the combination of second-language reading and reading difficulties is associated with lower performance (longer processing time) for executive functioning and long-term memory (specifically episodic memory). It is suggested that this pattern of performance is produced by a general delayed processing profile in the context of bilingualism and reading difficulties. The findings are discussed in light of the notion of inefficient and difficult learning of new input in terms of dyslexic problems. Study IV explores special education teachers’ assumptions with respect to the type of special education services in Swedish schools with a high proportion of (bilingual) pupils with reading difficulties. The findings of this study underscore the importance of the provision of special bi-literacy education for bilingual dyslexic children in schools and the current shortcomings regarding time and knowledge resources in this regard.

School readiness has a long-term effect on the development of a learner, including a successful school career, employment and the ability to contribute to society. The criteria for the personal readiness of the learner at school entry were proposed by the National Education Goals Panel (NEGP, 1991), and include physical well-being and motor development; social-emotional development; approaches to learning; language usage and communication skills; and cognitive skills and general knowledge. As learning starts long before school entry, stimulation during the pre-school years should not be underestimated. External factors that have an impact on the personal readiness of the child include the expectations of the parents, the readiness of the school, preschool experiences and the environment of the child. Many studies have proven that children from disadvantaged backgrounds are less ready for formal learning than their more advantaged peers, since they are often deprived from attending good quality preschools. As a result they are at heightened risk for school failure, which has serious and long-lasting consequences. In South Africa a significant number of young learners have not reached the required level of readiness to cope with formal learning in Grade 1, due to inadequate early learning experiences, which in most cases, is the result of poverty and deprivation. Instead of a smooth transition from the informal preschool environment to the formal learning environment of the Grade 1 classroom, these learners are traumatised by the fact that they cannot keep up with the pace and requirements of the formal learning situation, resulting in experiences of failure, discouragement and a poor self esteem which, in turn will have a negative long term effect on the academic performance of these learners. School readiness is regarded as a multi-dimensional construct which, apart from the personal readiness of the learner, also includes the readiness of the school to support learners according to their diverse needs. Schools have a responsibility to provide positive learning environments as well as positive learning experiences for their learners. According to the teachers in this study their schools are not prepared to support these learners by addressing their needs. Their predominant concern is the inaccessibility of the current curriculum for learners with insufficient school readiness. / Dissertation (MEd)--University of Pretoria, 2014. / lk2014 / Early Childhood Education / MEd / Unrestricted

Bakgrund: ADHD, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, kännetecknas av koncentrationssvårigheter med hyperaktivitet och impulsivitet. Dessutom har ADHD påverkan på personens förmågor att hantera sitt vardagliga liv. Denna störning anses bero på både ärftliga och icke ärftliga faktorer. Ett utredningsteam på en psykiatrisk mottagning ställer diagnosen ADHD till vuxna. Teamet bedömer individens svårigheter att hantera vardagen. De svenska vårdprogrammen utgör grunden för en individanpassad behandling samt ett psykosocialt stöd. Syfte: Syftet med studien är att beskriva hur personer upplever att leva med ADHD före och efter att diagnosen ställts. Metod: En litteraturöversikt enligt Friberg har genomförts. Tretton kvalitativa artiklar har använts till analysen. Artiklarna hämtas från databaserna Cinahl, PsycInfo och PubMed. Följande sökord användes: ADHD, symptoms, adults, patients experiences, quality of life och qualitative research. Resultat: Analysen resulterade i två huvudteman Livet före diagnosen och Livet efter diagnosen. Deltagarna beskriver brist på förståelse från omgivningen, svårigheter med att anpassa sig till dagliga rutiner, låg självkänsla samt känsla av isolering före diagnosticering. Efter diagnosen beskriver deltagarna effekten av medicinsk behandling och stödet efter diagnosticering och menade att sådana åtgärder bidrog till möjligheten att fungera i den sociala miljön. Diskussion: De vuxnas upplevelser av att leva med ADHD diskuteras utifrån Erikssons teori om lidande och hälsa. Även fokuserar diskussionsdelen på sjuksköterskans professionella roll och ansvar under utredning samt behandling av patienter med ADHD. / Background: ADHD, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, is characterized by concentration difficulties with hyperactivity and impulsivity. ADHD also have an impact on a person’s ability to manage their everyday lives.  This disorder is attributed to both genetic and non-genetic factors that are biological and psychosocial reasons. Current assessment of ADHD diagnosis is usually made by an investigating team at a psychiatric clinic. The team assesses the individual's extensive difficulties in managing everyday life. The Swedish health care programs are the basis for individualized treatment and psychosocial support. Aim: The purpose of this literature review was to describe how people experience living with ADHD before and after the diagnosis. Method: A literature review according to Friberg was conducted. Thirteen qualitative articles were used for the analysis. The articles were retrieved from the databases Cinahl, PsycInfo and PubMed. The following keywords were used: ADHD, symptoms, adults, patient experiences, quality of life and qualitative research. Results: The analysis resulted in two main themes Life before the diagnosis and Life after the diagnosis. Participants report difficulties in adapting to daily routines, low self-esteem and senses of isolation before diagnosis. After diagnosis, the participants described the effect of medical treatment and support and explained that this bad contributed to the ability to work in the social environment. Their increased knowledge of ADHD diagnosis and support in daily life leads to improved problem management, giving them a new meaning in life. Discussion: The adults' experiences of living with ADHD are discussed in relation to Erikson's theory of suffering and health. The discussion section also focuses on the nurses’ professional role and responsibility during the investigation and the treatment of patients with ADHD.

Bakgrund: Att äta och därigenom tillgodogöra sig näring är av stor vikt för hälsa och tillfredsställande tillväxt. Flera faktorer påverkar ett barns matvanor och det finns ett flertal orsaker till uppfödningssvårigheter hos barn. Föräldrar till barn med uppfödningssvårigheter kan uppleva stress och oro. Specialbarnavårdscentralen (Special-BVC) är ett komplement till BVC och erbjuder råd samt psykosocialt stöd till föräldrar till barn med svåra matproblem.   Syfte: Att undersöka föräldrars upplevelser av råd och stöd givna av Special-BVC angående uppfödningssvårigheter hos barn. Metod: En kvalitativ intervjustudie med explorativ och deskriptiv design tillämpades. Intervjuer genomfördes med tolv föräldrar till barn med uppfödningssvårigheter som varit inskrivna på Special-BVC. Intervjuerna spelades in, transkriberades och analyserades med kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultat: Innehållsanalysen resulterade i fyra kategorier: Upplevelser och intryck av Special-BVC, Skillnader kring råd och stöd mellan BVC och Special-BVC, Förväntningar inför kontakten med Special-BVC och Upplevelser kring uppfödningssvårigheter. Föräldrarnas upplevelser skiljdes åt men var övervägande positiva även då barnets uppfödningssvårigheter kvarstod till viss del. Slutsats: Föräldrar till barn med uppfödningssvårigheter vittnar om stress och oro samt uttrycker behov av råd och stöd. Special-BVC har genom ett professionellt bemötande, stor kunskap samt erfarenhet kunnat guida föräldrarna i rätt riktning och hjälpt dem att utöva egenvård. Distriktssköterskan möter och vårdar människor i olika faser och situationer i livet och bör inneha ett holistiskt och etiskt förhållningssätt. Det är av stor vikt att människor som upplever svårigheter erbjuds individuellt anpassad vård för att uppnå bästa möjliga hälsa. / Background: To eat and thereby assimilate nutrients is of great importance regarding health and a satisfactory growth. Several factors influence food habits and different reasons to food intake difficulties can be found. Parents to children with food intake difficulties can experience stress and anxiety. The Special Child Health Care Centre (Special-BVC) is a complement to the ordinary Child Health Care and offers counselling and psychosocial support to parents with children experiencing severe food intake difficulties.        Objective: To investigate parents’ experiences of advice and support given by the Special-BVC regarding food intake difficulties.                                                                             Method: A qualitative interview study with exploratory and descriptive design was applied. Interviews were conducted with twelve parents of children with food intake difficulties who were enrolled at Special-BVC. The interviews were recorded, transcribed and analysed with qualitative content analysis.                                              Results: The content analysis generated four categories: Experiences and impressions regarding Special-BVC, Differences about advice and support between the Child Health Care Centre and Special-BVC, Expectations before the contact with Special-BVC and Experiences regarding food intake difficulties. The experiences were different among the parents but predominantly positive even when the child’s food intake difficulties partly remained.                                                                                                 Conclusion: Parents to children with food intake difficulties expresses stress and anxiety and the need of counselling and support. Special-BVC could guide the parents in the right direction through a professional personal treatment, great knowledge and experience, and thereby help them practice self care. The district nurse meets and cares for individuals in different phases and situations in life and ought to possess a holistic and ethic approach. It is of a great importance that people experiencing difficulties, in this case parents to children with food intake difficulties, offers an individually adjusted care to achieve optimal health.

The participation of children and young people (CYP) in decisions affecting them is high on the political agenda. CYP with special educational needs (SEN) in the form of social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD) continue to be under-represented in the literature with regard to participation and sharing their views. CYP with a statement of SEN must be formally reviewed on an annual basis, which is referred to as the annual statement review (ASR). The current research investigates how CYP with SEBD are presently participating in this formal and regular process that involves reviewing, decision-making and planning around their individual needs. A multiple case study was carried out, which involved two educational provisions, a resource based provision and a special provision, both for CYP with SEBD. Participants included the special educational needs coordinator (SENCo) in each provision, two CYP from the resource based provision, and one CYP from the special provision. Each of the three CYP were the focus of each individual case, with the two CYP from resource based provision being in Key Stage 2 and the individual CYP in special provision in Key Stage 4 of the National Curriculum. Main methods of data collection were semi-structured interview and observation throughout the ASR process. Data was analysed using thematic and content analysis. From a critical realist perspective, the investigation revealed that current practice to enable CYP with SEBD to participate in their ASR was found to be good, although it was proposed it could be better. This overall finding is based on the perspective that CYP should have the opportunity to make an impact on the ASR process as well as the outcome through decision-making, no matter how small the decision is that they are involved with. This was not always the case in the current practice examined in the study, more so with the younger CYP attending the resource based provision. The findings contribute to developing a good practice model for schools to support CYP with SEBD to effectively participate in review, decision-making and planning around their needs in statutory processes. A further research opportunity would be to investigate such practice in specialist provision for CYP with SEBD on a wider scale by using the survey design, to consider the current findings in a wider context.

Syftet med studien var att undersöka hur lärare och speciallärare i årskurserna 1–3 upplever att elever med lässvårigheters attityder och motivation till läsning påverkar deras läsutveckling. De forskningsfrågor som besvaras är: Vad upplever informanterna att elevernas attityder och motivation påverkas av?, Hur hanterar informanterna elevernas attityder och motivation till läsning? och på vilket sätt undervisar informanterna eleverna för att utveckla deras attityder och motivation till läsning? Den teoretiska utgångspunkten som studien intog var teorier om läsutveckling baserat på forskning. Studien utgick från Lundberg och Herrlins (2005) definition av de fem olika dimensionerna som eleverna behöver behärska för att anses som goda läsare. Forskningsmetoden som använts i studien utgick från teorin, teorier om det subjektiva, som är grunden för en fenomenografisk teoribildning. Materialet utgjordes av semistrukturerade intervjuer och de informanter som studien hade var strategiskt utvalda. Intervjuerna utgick från en intervjuguide och efter avslutad intervju transkriberades dem. Dessa transkriberingar analyserades med en tematisk analys. Det resultat som framkom utifrån intervjuerna är att samtliga informanter stött på olika grupper av läsattityder. En grupp utgör elever som anser att läsning är lustfyllt och därmed har positiva attityder till läsning och en grupp utgör de elever som anser läsning är mindre lustfyllt och därmed har negativa läsattityder. Informanterna anser också att föräldrarnas attityder till läsning påverkar elevernas läsattityder. Lärarna och speciallärarna hanterar elevernas läsattityder på olika sätt men samtliga informanter anser att det är viktigt att stötta eleverna i deras läsutveckling, för att minska risken att eleverna skapar negativa läsattityder. De har olika tillvägagångssätt i sin undervisning för att ta hänsyn till elevernas läsattityder. Samtliga informanter är däremot eniga om att elevernas läsattityder påverkar deras läsutveckling. / The purpose of the study is to study active teachers and special teachers 'experiences of how pupils with reading difficulties' read attitudes and motivation affects their reading development. The research questions that will be answered in the study are: What do the teachers describe that the involved pupils reading attitudes and motivation are influenced by and how do they mean that the pupils' attitudes affect their reading development? How do the teachers describe the way in which they handle the pupils’ reading attitudes? In what way do the teachers describe that they are teaching to affect pupils' attitudes for reading? The study is based on general theories of pupils’ reading development. This study will be based on Lundberg and Herrlins (2005) definition of the five different dimensions that pupils need to master in order to be considered as good readers. Theories on the subjective, in this respect phenomenological theory, provide the methodology of the study.  The material comprise of semi structured interviews and the candidates in the study were strategically selected. The interviews were based on an interview guide and after the interview, they were transcribed. These transcripts were analyzed by a thematic analysis. The results show that all candidates encounter diverse groups of attitudes to reading. One group constitutes pupils who think reading is fun and thus have a positive attitude to reading and one group constitutes those pupils who consider reading are less fun and thus have a negative attitude to reading. The candidates also consider that the attitudes of parents to reading influence the readings of pupils. Teachers and special teachers handle student readings in diverse ways, but all candidates consider it important to support pupils in their reading development, to reduce the risk of pupils creating negative readings. They also make different in their teachings to consider the pupils' readings. All candidates, on the other hand, agree that pupils' reading positions affect their reading development.

Som pedagog behöver man ha kunskap om olika läs- och skrivinlärningsmetoder för att kunna stötta eleverna så bra som möjligt i deras läs- och skrivutveckling. Alla elever är olika och har olika erfarenheter och behov när de börjar skolan. Syftet med studien är att undersöka hur Wittingmetoden fungerar vid nyinlärning samt varför den är bra för att förebygga läs- och skrivsvårigheter hos barn. Studien undersöker även hur samarbetet kan se ut mellan lärare utifrån Wittingmetoden och andra metoder, samt varför lärare tror att Wittingmetoden är relativt okänd. För att få en uppfattning om metodens funktion har det även gjorts en jämförelse med några andra väl beprövade metoder. Studien genomfördes genom kvalitativa intervjuer med fyra lärare från olika delar av Sverige. Gemensamt för lärarna var att de arbetar helt eller delvis utifrån Wittingmetoden. Resultaten av intervjuerna visar att metoden fungerar väl för nyinlärning, samt att den även var effektiv för att förebygga läs- och skrivsvårigheter. Detta på grund av att metoden uppfattas som effektiv, inget lämnas åt slumpen, allt är genomtänkt och kreativt, strukturen är tydlig och eleverna arbetar i sin egen takt. Två av lärarna tyckte att metoden var den enda att arbeta utifrån medan de två andra lärarna även använde sig av andra metoder. / The purpose of the study is to investigate how the Witting method works in new learning and whether it is good for preventing reading and writing difficulties. The survey also shows why the method is relatively unknown among teachers. In order to gain an idea of ​​the method's function, a comparison has also been made with some other well-proven methods used in Sweden. The survey was conducted through qualitative interviews with four teachers from different parts of Sweden. Common to all four teachers was that they work fully or partly from the Witting method. The results of the interviews show that all four teachers agreed that the method works well for new learning and that it was also effective in preventing reading and writing difficulties. This because the method is perceived to be effective, nothing is left by chance, everything is thoughtful and creative, the structure is clear and the students work at their own pace. Two of the teachers thought the method was the only one to work from the outside while the other two teachers also used other methods.

Behaviour difficulties displayed in childhood and adolescence have pervasive and long term effects into adulthood and across various domains of functioning (Healey, et al. 2004, Woodward, et al. 2002). The numbers of children who suffer with them remain worryingly high (Green et al. 2005). Children with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) are considered particularly at risk of displaying behaviour difficulties; however, despite representing around one fifth of the school population (DfE 2011), little research to date has explicitly investigated these problems in this population. The present study therefore aimed to investigate risk, promotive and protective factors for behaviour difficulties in children with SEND across multiple ecological levels. Data were collected through a concurrent research project evaluating Achievement for All (Humphrey et al. 2011). The sample comprised children identified with SEND in years 1, 5, 7 and 10, from ten local authorities deemed representative of England. A final sample consisted of 2660 primary pupils nested in 248 primary schools and 1628 secondary pupils nested within 57 secondary schools. Predictor variables were measured at the individual and school levels at baseline, along with a teacher reported measure of behaviour difficulties which was assessed again eighteen months later. Analyses were carried out using multi-level modelling revealing that primary schools accounted for 15% and secondary schools 13% of the total variance in behaviour difficulties, with the remainder being at the individual level. Significant risk factors for these problems across both school types were: being male; eligibility for FSM; and being a bully. Risk factors specific to primary schools included being autumn born, being older in the school, having poor positive relationships, and attending schools with lower levels of academic achievement. Risk factors specific to secondary schools included being younger in the school, having poor attendance, having poor academic achievement, being a bystander to bullying and attending a larger school. Results showed evidence for a cumulative risk effect that increasing numbers of contextual risk factors, regardless of their exact nature, resulted in heightened behaviour difficulties. This relationship was non-linear with increasing risk factors in an individual’s background having a disproportional and detrimental increase in behaviour difficulties displayed. The specific type of risk was however, more important than number of risk factors present in an individual’s background in accounting for behaviour difficulties displayed. Finally, results revealed significant protective factors at the school level; specifically attending primary schools with high academic achievement and with more children on the SEND register at school action can protect against the display of behaviour difficulties when these children are at risk in terms of having poor positive relationships. Attending urban secondary schools can also protect against the display of behaviour difficulties, when these children are at risk in terms of having poor academic achievement. The implications of these findings are discussed along with directions for future research.

Background: The Routes for Learning (RfL) assessment is intended to enable accurate assessment of the cognitive and communication skills of pupils with profound and multiple learning difficulties (PMLD). A literature search revealed that there is little published research regarding the implementation or effectiveness of RfL. This study aimed to begin to address this lack of research by investigating some of the ways in which the RfL materials are used in practice, why they have been used in these ways and how this relates to the RfL guidance. Participants: Two special school settings were identified while working for an Educational Psychology Service. For each setting a practitioner using RfL and a staff member with leadership responsibility for assessment/RfL was identified. Methods: A multiple embedded case study was conducted in two special school settings in a North West local authority. A running record was kept of observations made of school staff using RfL in practice. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with practitioners using RfL and staff members with leadership responsibility for RfL. All interviewees also completed a background questionnaire to provide context for the research and to support data from interviews. Interviews were recorded and transcribed. An examination of the RfL materials and resources was undertaken. Analysis/Findings: All interview data were analysed using thematic analysis and the findings presented as thematic maps. Conclusion/Implications: This study found that RfL is being used in different ways in special schools and identified a number of issues which relate to its use and implementation.

English Language Learners (ELLs) are considered to be at higher risk for developing emotional and behavioral difficulties due to their limited English proficiency. As a result, the present study examined the identification of emotional and behavioral risk (EBR) among ELLs and non-ELLs through the use of universal behavior screening measures. The study consisted of 395 students enrolled in kindergarten through 5th grades, ranging in age from 5 years, 6 months to 12 years, 4 months. Over half of participants (52.4%) were male and a majority (42.8%) identified as Hispanic/Latino(a). Approximately one-fifth (19.7%) of students were classified as ELLs. Teachers completed the electronic version of the BASC-2 Behavioral and Emotional Screening System-Teacher Form (BESS) for each student in their classroom. Demographic student data was provided by the school via the school’s electronic database. Results showed no relationship between ELL status and EBR. However, there was a relationship between gender and the identification of EBR among ELL students, where males demonstrated increased risk levels. In addition, students' reading ability, age, and gender predicted whether ELL and non-ELL students would be identified as at-risk for emotional and behavior problems. Although results did not show a relationship between language proficiency and EBR, ELLs remain a group vulnerable for being identified as at-risk for emotional and behavioral difficulties, due to academic and/or social-emotional problems that they may experience. In practice, schools may want to consider using an integrated approach to conducting universal screening, where schools screen for reading difficulties and behavior concerns, thus allowing them to address a broader range of concerns through early intervention programs.