In his landmark work World Poverty and Human Rights, Thomas Pogge offers a novel approach to understanding the nature and extent of the obligations that citizens of wealthy states owe to their less fortunate counterparts in poor states. Pogge argues that the wealthy have weighty obligations to aid the global poor because the wealthy coercively impose institutions on the poor that leave their human rights, particularly their subsistence rights avoidably unfulfilled. Thus, Pogge claims that the wealthy states' obligations to the poor are ultimately generated by their negative duties, that is, their duties to refrain from harming. In this essay, I argue that Pogge cannot successfully appeal to negative duties in way that would appease his critics because his notion of a negative duty is seriously indeterminate, so much so as to compromise his ability to plausibly appeal to it.

The current degree of economic inequality in the US is the largest it has been since prior to the Great Depression and growing. Economic inequality is linked to mortality, social capital, interpersonal trust, and democratic participation, beyond the effects of poverty. Two main constructs are reviewed as predictors of support for efforts to reduce inequality: 1) distributive justice norms (equity and equality of outcome), and 2) causal attributions (individual and structural). Justification of the unequal status quo is often driven by reference to dominant cultural values personal responsibility and just deserts, which are likened to individual attributions and equity, respectively. However, individuals may also recognize that economic outcomes are determined by structural factors such as discrimination and privilege. Recognition that structural factors determine economic outcomes is referred to as systems analysis. Systems analysis is expected to be unrelated to individual attributions, reflecting the common view that economic outcomes are determined by both individual and structural factors. Furthermore, systems analysis is conceptualized as the central determinant of both the extent to which equality of outcome is desirable, despite prevailing preferences for equity, and the use of dominant cultural values as justifications for opposition to redistribution. Because systems analysis reflects the view that resources are not distributed solely based on individual merit, it implies that resources are not distributed fairly. This belief is expected to increase endorsement for equality of outcome and weaken negative effects of equity and individual attributions on support for redistribution. Predictors of support for government action to reduce inequality were examined using the US sample (n = 1414) of the 1991 International Social Justice Project. Opposition to reducing inequality is often driven by reference to dominant cultural values such as the equity distributive justice norm and individualistic causal attributions. The present study tested the hypothesis that supporters and opponents share a common endorsement of these dominant values, but differ in the extent to which they acknowledge that structural factors determine economic outcomes (defined as systems analysis). Results indicated that the negative relationship between individual attributions and support for redistribution was only significant among participants with low systems analysis.

The thesis will examine the harm principle, as originally described by John Stuart Mill. In doing so, it will defend that, though unintended, the harm principle may justify several principles of distributive justice. To augment this analysis, the paper will examine several secondary authors’ interpretations of the harm principle, including potential critiques of the thesis itself.

In the past several years, the impact of intellectual property rights (IPRs) on access to medicines and medical technologies has come under increased scrutiny. Motivating this are highly publicized cases where IPRs appear the threaten access to particular medicines and diagnostics. As IPRs become globalized, so does the controversy: In 1998, nearly forty pharmaceutical companies filed a lawsuit against South Africa, citing (among other issues) deprivation of intellectual property. This followed South Africa’s implementation of various measures to enable and encourage the use of generic medicines – a move that was particularly controversial for the newly available (and still patented) HIV medicines. While many historical, legal, economic, and policy analyses of these cases and issues exist, few explicitly normative projects have been undertaken. This thesis utilizes interdisciplinary and explicitly normative philosophical methods to fill this normative void, engaging theoretical work on intellectual property and global distributive justice with each other, and with empirical work on IPR reform. In doing so, it explicitly rejects three mistaken assumptions about the debate over IPRs and access to essential medicines: (i) that this debate reduces to a disagreement about empirical facts; (ii) that intellectual property is normatively justified solely by its ability to “maximize innovation”; and (iii) that this controversy reduces to irresolvable disagreement about global distributive justice. Calling upon the best contemporary approaches to human rights, it argues that these approaches lend normative weight in favor of reforming IPRs – both that they should be reformed, and how – to better enable access to essential medicines. Such reforms might include modifying the present global IPR regime or creating new alternatives to the exclusivity of IPRs, both of which are considered in light of a human right to access to essential medicines. Future work will be needed, however, to better specify the content of a right to “essential medicines” and determine a fair distribution of the costs of fulfilling it. / Dissertation

Impartial Cognizance of Employee to the Organizational Performance Appraisal & the Influence to Employees Working Attitude--The object is the medical Center in Taichung. Abstract Till today, the history of performance appraisal has developed over 70 years, and also many experts and scholars put forward appraisal theories and standards, but no any enterprise will say that their own appraisal institution is perfect, because both the subjective factor, e.g.: employee themselves, organization, and society, etc., and external situation can influence performance appraisal. Due to the difference of educational background and the specific characteristics in the hospitals, this let the work of performance appraisal to be more complicated; the scholar shows that over 61% employee are discontented with the appraisal results. To the organization, the justice of appraisal is an index very important to judge the effect of performance appraisal. Moreover, we can find from more researches, employee¡¦s cognizance to the justice of performance appraisal will influence personal results and the results of organization, includes satisfaction of work, participation of work, promise to organization, and the confidence in the directors, etc. Therefore, the object in this research is the medical center in Taichung. We investigate the justice cognizance of performance appraisal institution, and the influence possible to working attitude. We use people¡¦s personal property to be control variable, the justice of performance appraisal institution (includes justice of procedure and distribution) to be independent variable, working attitude (includes job satisfaction, organization commitment, and job involvement) to be according-variable, and explore the relationship and influence of personal property variable, justice of performance appraisal, and working attitude with the items mentioned above. We hope to give the performance appraisal standard to the case hospital to evaluation, start the development of manpower, and the reference of raising employee results. This research total gives 2065 questionnaires, and effective questionnaire is 1452. Through Pearson Correlation Analysis, Hierarchical Regression Analysis, Canonical Correlation Analysis, Independent-Samples T test and Reliability Analysis, we have the finding important as follows: The correlation and the influence between the procedural justice, distributive justice and the working attitude are showed the positive obviously; further more, to explore the relationship degree between the justice of performance appraisal and working attitude with typical correlations analysis. The principle variable (construction of procedure, objective principle, expression of opinion, actual results, self-estimation, and policy opinion) influences mainly the internal and external satisfaction, effort promise, value promise, job promise, etc. 5 forecast variable; besides, objective principle influences the forecast variable of value promise and job promise. Among procedure justice of performance appraisal, distributive justice, and working attitude, it shows positive correlation and influence noticeable. Moreover, to explanation comparison between independent variable and dependent variable: explanation of procedure justice to organization commitment (value promise and job promise) is powerful than distributive justice, to the others; the explanation of distributive justice to job satisfaction and job involvement is powerful. Therefore, we can find distributive justice has its importance in the explanation to job satisfaction and job involvement. Procedure justice can forecast organization commitment. To the personal properties of employee, except sex, age, service years, marriage, education degree, and position, the difference is obvious to procedure justice, distributive justice, job satisfaction, organization commitment, job involvement, etc. of performance appraisal. In accordance with research conclusion of example with the reference of the case hospital¡¦s organization construction, we would like to give the suggestion in the process of performance appraisal, results, working attitude, and administrator as follows: Consider mark standard of public appraisal, distribution of reward, and conclude clearly the system of promotion of employee. Develop performance appraisal index according to character of position, build the two ¡V way communication performance appraisal system, reduce dispersion of organization space to enhance the technician¡¦s information interaction, the judge should be trained, and establish different performance appraisal index according to the character of position. Key words: Performance appraisal, Procedural justice, Distributive justice, Job satisfaction, Organization commitment, and Job involvement.

The Research of Organizational Citizenship Behavior for Contracted Employees and Formal Employees in the Legislative Yuan¡ÐThe Moderating Effect of Organizational Justice Abstract The organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is altruistic behavior beyond formal norms performed by members of an organization. Empirically, it has been established that OCB serves to lubricate within-organizational interactions, enhance organizational performance, improve service quality as well as customer satisfaction, and helps to prevent members from leaving the organization. Given these facts, OCB is especially important to the service-oriented public sector. Up to this stage, however, we have seen relatively few local discussions on how OCB can be affected by employment status, and even less on the moderating variables that influence the relationship between OCB and employment status. The purpose of this research is to study differences in organizational citizenship behavior between contracted and formal employees in the Legislative Yuan. Furhtermore, the study tries to explore how organizational justice moderates the impact employment status has on organizational citizenship behavior. The major findings of this study are as following: (1) Relative to formal employees, contracted employees are less conscientious,but not significantly different in the ¡§en-teamed¡¨, ¡§loyalty¡¨ and ¡§enthusiasm¡¨ variables. (2) The moderating effect of organizational justice is obvious. There are significant differences between contracted and formal employees in their ¡§en-team¡¨, ¡§conscientiousness¡¨, ¡§loyalty¡¨ and ¡§enthusiasm¡¨. Contracted employees scored lower than formal employees in these variables. Key words : Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Employment Status, Organizational Justice, Distributive justice, Formal procedural justice, Interactional justice

In the past few years, the people require the government became more representative, reactive and responsible due to the change of society, the development of technology and the increase of the people¡¦s requirements. Therefore, the establishment of the efficient civil service system is the need for the current situation. The government has to maintain the civil service system, which is based on justice, rightfulness and merits system, before it becomes a democracy, which should represent the will of the people and owns by the people, from an authoritarian government. Most researches show that the employees¡¦ cognition of the performance appraisal¡¦s justice will affect their individual results and organizational results, and the cognition includes job satisfaction, job involvement, a commitment to organization, trust in the management and etc¡K Therefore, three different attributes of civil servants, who are respectively from the authority of Kaohsiung City Government, including police station, municipal hospital and tax authority, are subjects for the research. Individual attributes and the performance appraisal¡¦s justice (including procedural justice and distributive justice) are the self-variable item, and the working attitude (including job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job involvement) is the variable item. To take the discussion of the correlation and the influence between the self-variable item of individual attributes, the performance appraisal¡¦s justice and the working attitude as the reference to improve the performance appraisal¡¦s system and the development of the civil service¡¦s manpower, and then increase the service achievements of civil servants. There are 740 questionnaires in total of the research, and effective questionnaires are 631 copies. After Independent test, One-way ANOVA, Person Correlation Analysis, Regression Analysis, Hierarchical Multiple Regression, Canonical Correlation Analysis, and etc¡K the important discoveries are as follows: 1.The correlation and the influence between the procedural justice, distributive justice and the working attitude of performance appraisal are very obviously. The explanation of distributive justice for job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job involvement is greater than the procedural justice. That proves distributive justice is very important for the explanation of the working attitude. 2.In the aspect of civil servant¡¦s attribute, age, length of service and different authority will cause obviously difference to the procedural justice, distributive justice, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job involvement of performance appraisal. 3.Thus it can be known by a typical correlation analysis, the degree of correlation between two variable items (performance appraisal¡¦s justice and the working attitude) and five principles variable items (including procedural structure, objective principle, opinion expression, actual achievements and self-evaluation) will mainly affect five anticipating variable items (including internal satisfaction, external satisfaction, endeavored to commit, valuable commitment and commitment of remaining in position). And the influence of results will mainly affect two anticipating variable items, including endeavored to commit and job involvement. According to the conclusion of actual demonstration, the following suggestion is provided for the process, result, working attitude and the management of the performance appraisal: Establish a different appraising standard and item in accordance with the character of position. The appraising standard and item should be made by both the management and the subordinates. The management and the subordinates should keep good interaction. The point of view of the basic level personnel should be taken seriously. The appraiser should be training. Strengthen the propagation of the function of the civil servants¡¦ protection system. Promote the status and representative of appraising committee. Strengthen the function of performance appraisal to the development of employees properly. Exercise the result of appraisal efficiently. Establish various and encouraging recompense or reward system. Increase the external satisfaction of the civil servants. The organization should pay attention to the knowledge management and the sharing system.

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William Damon於1975年提出「兒童積極性正義發展階段」的概念與測驗方式，但是Damon在發展概念之初，並未針對性別與情境差異兩項可能影響兒童進行公平分配時的判斷的因素進行探究，因此，本研究希望能瞭解台灣兒童是否會因為本身的性別不同，或因為面對的情境不同，而影響他們在判斷公平分配時的決定。研究工具的設計是以Willian Damon所發展出來的「兒童積極性正義概念發展階段」為基礎，並參考國內外過去的相關研究，重新設計一套「兒童公平分配概念發展測驗」，並選取台北地區40名5至6歲的兒童進行施測。本研究結果顯示：1.不同性別兒童在公平分配的概念上並沒有顯著差異；2.兒童在面對不同的情境時，對於公平分配判斷的原則會有顯著差異；3.兒童的性別差異與情境差異並未出現交互作用。 / William Damon proposed the concept and testing ways of “Children developmental stages of Positive-Justice” in 1975, but on that time, he didn’t focus on the two possible variables—gender and context differences—of the judgement of children’s distributive justice further. Therefore, this study attampts to understand whether Taiwanese children would modify their judgements of distributive justive because of their gender or the contexts they involve in. The design of the research methods is based on “Childen developmental stage of Positive-Justice” which Damon has developed, and the overseas and domestic researches relating to distributive justice before, and then redevelopes a new test of “the Development of Children Distributive-Justice Concept”. In addition, there are 40 children between 5-year-old and 6-year-old in Taipei sampled to participate in the study. The result of the study reveals: 1. there is no significant difference on the judgements of distrubitive jutice concept in different children’s gender;2. The principles of judging distributive justice for children show have significant difference because of different contexts which children involved;3. The interaction of children’s gender and contexts in judging distributive justice doesn’t have significant difference.

This thesis investigates whether luck egalitarianism can provide a cogent and coherent interpretation of educational equality. Historically, the belief that each child should receive an equally good education has exerted a strong influence on policy makers and thus on educational practice, and this despite the vagueness of the egalitarian formula. More recently however, the ideal has been undermined in practice by the rise of neoliberalism and in theory by a number of thinkers advocating other principles of educational justice. But it is vital to be clear about what each child is owed because of the profound effects of education on a person’s life prospects. The motivation for this work is therefore to determine whether educational equality can be rescued as a desirable and animating ideal of educational justice. In order to achieve this, I examine luck egalitarianism, a theory of distributive justice that has its origins in the work of John Rawls, but is now the major rival to his account of egalitarian justice. I probe at the fundamental moral intuitions underpinning luck egalitarianism and how it brings together the morally potent ideas of equality, luck and choice. I argue that these are of relevance for the education each child is owed and I propose a luck egalitarian conception of educational equality, argue that it is a cogent interpretation of egalitarian justice, and conclude that a luck egalitarian conception shows educational equality to be an ideal that is relevant, coherent and what morally matters most for justice in education. I describe luck egalitarianism as resting on three basic moral beliefs: that distributive equality is a fundamental demand of justice; that luck undermines fair equality; and that a person’s genuine choices can sometimes, under certain background conditions, render some otherwise objectionable inequalities not unjust. I then examine whether these three beliefs are compatible with each other and what, if anything, links them. Next, I consider luck egalitarianism’s status as a theory of distributive justice and argue that far from this being a weakness, as Elizabeth Anderson (1999) has notably argued, it is a strength of the position. But to appreciate this it needs to be seen that luck egalitarianism makes no claim to being all of justice and that the equalisandum of equality is complex and egalitarianism is intrinsically pluralist in nature (with a particular understanding of what is meant by pluralist). I consider too whether it is a mistake to say that inequalities that are largely due to luck can really be thought of as unjust. Thomas Nagel (1997) has argued that it is merely misfortune, unless the result of deliberate actions or social structures for which someone is responsible. I reject that position and argue that no one has to be responsible for an inequality for it to be unjust. Having interrogated luck egalitarianism and found it to be a sound account of egalitarian distributive justice, I turn to looking at whether it can illuminate our understanding of educational equality. Educational equality is often interpreted in terms of equality of educational opportunity. I look particularly at a conception of equality of educational opportunity, strongly influenced by Rawls, that has been thoughtfully and carefully articulated by Harry Brighouse and Adam Swift (2008). I find their conception powerful, but flawed, and argue that a luck egalitarian conception can account for the appeal of their conception, but is an advance on it. I end by looking at a specific question of educational justice to test the luck egalitarian conception – is there anything inegalitarian about ability grouping? I conclude that, while still needing to have its implications worked out in full, particularly as regards choice, a luck egalitarian conception provides a compelling account of educational equality and reasserts that equality matters for justice in education.