This central premise of this thesis is that Lars von Trier is a political director. Through a detailed formal analysis of five films I proceed to discuss the political implications of form, something that has not been acknowledged by scholarship so far. In this thesis, I employ Brecht as a methodological tool so as to discuss the shift from a dialectical cinema devoted to the production of knowledge effects, to a post-Brechtian one that brings together points of tension that remain unresolved. Chapter 1 proceeds to a historical evaluation of Brecht's reception in film theory and considers the ways that Brecht's theory and practice can address the cinematic and political concerns of the present. The chapter also locates von Trier under the rubric of the post-Brechtian by comparing him to past film practices. Chapter 2 moves to a discussion of von Trier's Europa trilogy and focuses on issues of historical representation. Emphasis is placed on formal elements that challenge the narrative laws of classical cinema. The chapter argues that von Trier follows Brecht's mistrust of a historical representation based on pictorial verisimilitude, without however sharing his forward-looking politics and his view of history as Marxist science. Chapter 3 discusses Dogme 95 and The Idiots (1998). Firstly, the chapter discusses Dogme's combination of a political modernist rhetoric with a realist one and places Dogme's return to the past in a historical context. Secondly, the chapter considers the role of performance as a formal and thematic element in The Idiots. I draw attention to the ways that the camera becomes performative and brings together material of dramaturgical importance with moments that are the product of cinematic contingency. My discussion is very much informed by contemporary post-Brechtian performance and film studies invested in the discussion of ‘corporeal cinema'. Chapter 4 discusses Dogville, a film with obvious references to Brecht. Unlike previous readings, I shift the emphasis from the film's assumed ‘Anti-Americanism' and proceed to a formal analysis that can rethink the film's politics and innovations. While Brecht has been thought to be as a fleeting presence in von Trier's films by most critics, this thesis suggests that our knowledge of von Trier's formal innovations can be deepened and enlivened by discussing them in conjunction with Brecht's theory. By returning to Brecht, we can also rethink the importance of form as the key to a film's politics.

The wager of this thesis is that, firstly, there exists an intrinsic relationship between memory and representation in visual performative media and, secondly, that a referential, Aristotelian conception of memory is made problematic by these same visual media. There are aspects within the ontology of both theatre and film, the specific media examined, which resist the model of representation that this memory constitutes. It is my contention that there is an alternative conception of memory, more appropriate to the difficulties that theatre and film present, which enables another way of understanding these media. This other memory is derived from the distinction in Freud's work between psychoanalysis as a hermeneutics, and as an energetics. I draw upon an 'energetic' conception of memory as the foundation for an energetic approach to theatre and film. In the first chapter I enunciate this distinction in Freud's work, tracing his energetic model from the Project of 1895 to the role of affect in the metapsychological papers, before moving to its elaboration by later psychoanalysts (including André Green, Christopher Bollas and César and Sára Botella). For the second chapter, I relate this psychoanalytic discussion to poststructuralist theory, which Freudian energetics has considerably influenced. This is examined through Jacques Derrida's interpretation of Freud's work on memory, and Jean-François Lyotard's own philosophy of energetics (with which much of my work is in dialogue). The third and fourth chapters turn to theatre and film respectively. Each chapter initially explores the aspects of each medium that complicate the more familiar notion of referential memory as a relevant model of representation. I then establish how these same points of difficulty demonstrate an affinity with an energetic approach, opening the possibility of a new way of thinking theatre and film through memory, and of thinking memory through these visual media. A comparative approach is taken to identify and articulate the distinctiveness of these particular media, through their unique interactions with energetic theory. Looking ahead, this aims to provide the foundation for developing a means of addressing emergent visual media (particularly the videogame), which similarly complicates hermeneutic readings, based upon a study of their most significant antecedents: theatre and film.

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This thesis is an account of 'Les Shakespeare', a cycle of three plays by Shakespeare produced by the Theatre du Soleil, Paris (1981-4), translated and directed by Ariane Mnouchkine. The Introduction sets Mnouchkine’s Shakespeare productions in the context of those of her contemporaries and relates them to Shakespeare's twentieth-century production history in France. Particular reference is made to her experimentation with Far Eastern theatre forms: the concept of theatrical Orientalism is defined, of which 'Les Shakespeare' is a manifestation. Chapter One is a chronological history of Theatre du Soleil productions (1964-1980), company development and characteristic uses of form and style. Chapters Two, Three and Four give a detailed account of 'Les Shakespeare'; Richard II, La Nuit des rois, and Henry IV (premiere partie). These chapters concentrate on the development of a new theatrical language inspired by Oriental theatre forms. Chapter Five thus sets out Mnouchkine's Orientalist approach to theatre, in terms of acting, music and scenography. The Conclusion assesses the uniqueness of Mnouchkine's Shakespeare and focuses on her subsequent application of theatrical Orientalism to the Soleil's post-Shakespeare cycle work, and on the presentation of twentieth-century history in the Shakespearian manner. It interprets theatrical Orientalism as a desire for formalism which appears paradoxically, after a succession of unscripted plays, with the Theatre du Soleil's return to the text.

Against the background of the creationist world picture and biblical beliefs about language - shared by Shakespeare and his audience this thesis elicits the idea of language which Shakespeare deliberately presents in The Tempest. The theme of language is attached to Shakespeare's search for a definition of man in this 'mankind* play. A triple language experiment is plotted, given that the concept of language in the Renaissance includes non-verbal communication and that language was believed to mirror the speaker's mind. The first experiment isolates the unique human ingredient, defined by its absence at the demarcation lines of the human: both the spirit Ariel and the demi-devil Caliban lack an identification with the feelings of others. Thus they lack 'the very virtue of compassion' which leads to caritas. Charity is the repair of Babel's confusion of tongues through pride, and is the content of the disciples' pentecostal language, the true communicative language of individuals and societies. A second experiment contrasts morally the speech of two children grown up together in isolation in the controlled island environment, enabling a distinction to be made between good and bad natures and the speech that reveals them. This leads into a linguistic virtue and vice characterization of all the dramatis personae. Thirdly the play is metadramatic, defining itself as an agent of the 'virtue-causing delightfulness' claimed for literature by Sidney.

'Banished' - the word resounds in many Elizabethan and Jacobean plays, particularly in those of Shakespeare. This thesis examines the drama of banishment, that is, the sentence, lamentation, displacement, and metamorphosis of the exile in Romeo and Juliet, Richard II, Henry IV, As You Like It, King Lear, Coriolanus and The Tempest. To appreciate the rich and polysemous nature of 'banished' in Shakespeare's society I have considered a number of legal, historical and literary sources which reveal certain tropes of exile. The poet of Ovid's Tristia and Plato's Republic, the beast/god of Aristotle's Politics, the seventeenth-century colonialist, the Petrarchan lover, are all examples of the archetypes against which Shakespeare's banished characters fashion themselves. For banishment is a process of annihilation and of self-creation, and as such it raises various questions about identity in Shakespeare's plays. The possibility of its destruction and transformation reveals identity to be a fictional construct, based on ideology not inherent nature or right. This suggestion that the social distinctions between men are equally fictional gives a particular frisson to the juxtaposition of the exiled king and the naked beggar, to the transformation of greatness into barbarousness, that is so often staged on the Elizabethan and Jacobean stage through banishment.

This thesis examines the performances which have earned Sir lan McKellen a reputation as one of the foremost Shakespearean actors of the day. His reputation has been built on five major performances: Richard II, Macbeth, Coriolanus, lago and Richard III. His performances as Hamlet, Romeo, Leontes and Kent were only limited successes. This thesis places McKellen's performances in these roles in the specific context of the production as a whole. Where it is relevant it assesses the significance of the casting of other roles, the influence of the personality, style and interests of the director, the policy of the theatre company and the impact of the performance space. This thesis identifies patterns in McKellen's work determined by his own personality and sexuality, the Cambridge education he shares with Sir Peter Hall, John Barton and Trevor Nunn, and his relationships with other actors. The Introduction considers the characteristics of a McKellen Shakespeare performance and assesses the importance of his intellectual approach to the text. It looks at how his sexuality has influenced his performances. His devotion to touring is also highlighted. Chapter 1 concentrates on the Shakespeare roles McKellen played early on in his career. Chapter 2 is devoted to McKellen's celebrated performance as Richard II. Chapter 3 examines McKellen's interpretation of Hamlet. Chapter 4 looks at his performance as Edgar in the Actors' Company's King Lear and his taking over the role of The Bastard in the Royal Shakespeare Company's King John. Chapter 5 considers his performance as Romeo and chapter 6 his interpretation of Leontes. The success of McKellen's portrayal of Macbeth is scrutinised in Chapter 7, and his Sir Toby Belch in a touring production is also examined. Chapter 8 assesses the strengths and weaknesses of his performance as Coriolanus at the National Theatre. His NCO lago is explored in Chapter 9. Chapter 10 looks at the difficulties McKellen confronted when playing Kent and Chapter 11 the success of his portrayal of Richard III.

The development of the pre-show in English Shakespearean performance, 1932-2014 Productions of Shakespeare’s plays often feature an interpolated opening scene or ‘pre-show’. My thesis examines this phenomenon. Proposing threshold theory as a framework, I consider the interfaces between the classic text, the enacted play and the audience. Previous studies of modern pre-shows suggest three key purposes for the pre-show: narrative, concept, and theatricality, which I adopt as the structure of the second half of my thesis. Studies of early prologues and inductions trace cultural and artistic developments that pre-figure developments I trace in modern production. I consider in some detail Shakespeare’s own pre-show and introductory strategies and the problems they present to modern directors, before examining the earliest pre-shows of modern productions, in the 1930s to 1950s, the cultural and artistic circumstances that gave rise to them, and their reception among reviewers and scholars. Thereafter I trace the development of narrative pre-shows and the staging of embedded narratives, the rise of conceptual pre-shows and their origin in design and the New Criticism, and changing pre-show relationships with, and impact upon, audiences, ranging from the political to the commercial. I conclude that the pre-show is a significant innovation that has both accompanied and led a remarkable renaissance in Shakespearean performance.

This thesis examines the way dramaturgical techniques in Shakespeare's late plays are used to create a complex and radical exploration of the relationship between ideology and interpretation. It links such concerns via the multiple meanings of "construction", illustrated using the scene of reading at the end of Cymbeline, centred upon the prophetic label. In Part I, major reservations are expressed about the standard interpretative paradigms applied to late Shakespearian drama, and their effect on critical understanding. The deficiencies of a "Romance" reading and the problems with traditional attitudes to chronology, authorship, and collaboration are stressed; elements often marginalized as aesthetically inferior are defended; and two related areas of dramaturgical technique, theatrical spectacle and reported action, are emphasized. Part II focuses on reading individual late plays, with special emphasis on Henry VIII and The Two Noble Kinsmen. It adopts a reconstructed, politicized close reading, concentrating on issues relating to the problematics of interpretation within the plays. Individual chapters highlight different forms of "construction": art, history, truth, authority, display, narrative. Attention is drawn to how reading and interpretation are shown to be always inscribed within power relations and the performative dynamic of language.

In the first part of this dissertation the theoretical basis of a large number of writings on imagery is discussed, and some proposals made for a wider definition of poetic imagery and a new concept of dramatic imagery relevant to the criticism of poetic drama. The second part of the dissertation consists of analyses of the dramatic imagery of five plays.