In the past 40 years, the U.S. has experienced its largest expansion of incarceration. Sociological research has begun to examine the effects the dramatics rises in incarceration in the United States on other areas of social life. One area of research has examined the effects of parental incarceration on children. In this study, I examined the effects of parental incarceration on intragenerational and intergenerational socioeconomic mobility using data from nationally-representative sample of respondents who had been studied from adolescence to young adulthood. Specifically, I examined the effects of parental incarceration prevalence and duration on three measures of socioeconomic status—household income, occupational prestige, and educational attainment—at young adulthood while controlling for measures of parental socioeconomic status and socioeconomic status during adolescence. I found that the presence of parental incarceration, especially when it occurred before adulthood, exerted significant negative effects on all three measures of socioeconomic status at young adulthood. These effects were rather consistent throughout my results. The duration of parental incarceration among those who experienced it exerted few significant effects on socioeconomic status. I also found that the main mechanisms through which parental incarceration affected social mobility were early economic disadvantage and criminal justice contact. Parental incarceration had a significant negative effect on household income during adolescence. It also had a significant positive effect on arrests during adulthood. Low levels of household income during adolescence and high levels of arrests during adulthood, then, were associated with diminished socioeconomic life chances. Some of the effects of parental incarceration on social mobility were moderated by gender, race, and other demographic and contextual control variables, but the nature of those moderating effects was not consistent throughout my analyses. These findings indicate parental incarceration helps set in motion a process of cumulative disadvantage and a process of the intergenerational transmission of offending (and the negative social and economic consequences that come with it). The effects of both of these processes are that children of parents who’ve been “locked up” are then “locked out” of economic opportunities. This process may help form and reinforce social class boundaries.

The informal transport continues to play a crucial role in employment and many people’s livelihoods as transportation is an essential for development and socio-economic improvement of communities and countries. The transport system in Lesotho has had visible imperfections before and after independence hence mobility and accessibility has been a problem in Lesotho. Part of the problem has been due to the country’s topography and poor fiscal capacity to construct roads on the landscape that is already hard to develop and/ or requires a lot of funding. Lesotho, like other developing countries has had a difficulty in infrastructure developments. Available road developments still do not serve the population at large. Therefore most part of the population is left disconnected and marginalised. For the reasons mentioned above, formal transportation that was provided by the government was the Lesotho National Bus Service and Lesotho Fright Bus Services (LFBS). These operated towards the foothills or mountainous areas on gravel roads which were not commercially viable. The buses had defined time schedules and routes while local transport was liberated and left in the hands of private operators. This was done to enable free competition and enable innovation. Then, the country’s population increased and urbanisation become apparent as factories in Maseru and Leribe districts were established attracting people to towns to work at those factories. Mobility of people became an apparent need but available transport was inadequate. This saw an increase of informal transportation to bridge the mobility gap. However, it was still not enough as most of the informal passenger transport operated in towns and rural residents were still disconnected. At that moment many transport operators saw an opportunity to work in the informal transportation sector. This became possible as many Basotho were able to import cars from Japan and used them in the transportation sector to operate as ‘4+1 taxi’s. The model came as an alternative means of transportation because there was still an obvious need in the passenger’s mobility. As 4+1 taxis increased, their operation has been faulted and criminalised for being chaotic by causing traffic jam in the country’s small towns as in causing accidents, being involved in criminal activities and reckless driving, to mention a few. However, little attention was paid on how these taxis have helped to improve the mobility of passengers especially the poor who use them on a daily basis to commute. It is presented in this study that they certainly may be causing mayhem in the towns but they have been very beneficial to passenger mobility in Lesotho. The ‘4+1’ carry four people plus a driver; therefore, they fill in faster. They are timely and do not have fixed schedules; they navigate through traffic and settlements that sprawl out of town. Many passengers do not have to wait on long queues. They forge new routes in-to disconnected and marginalised areas to drive away competition. ‘4+1s have become very important to passenger’s mobility. Authorities need to ensure that they are registered and strictly enforce the law to make sure that they abide by the traffic laws. / Dissertation (MSocSci)--University of Pretoria, 2020. / Anthropology and Archaeology / MSocSci / Unrestricted

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Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Tooth mobility as it relates to orthodontics has not been thoroughly explored. The immediate aim of this project was to develop and test instrumentation to measure both tooth mobility and instantaneous centers of rotation under forces applied perpendicular to the tooth long axis. Two identical dial micrometers were selected and modified to allow variability in range, calibration, and contact pressure. All forces were delivered by mechanical force meters. A holding device was constructed to permit rigid positioning of a micrometer perpendicular to the long axis of any tooth in the arch and measure mobility at one point on the tooth. With an applied force of 500 gm., mobility measurements were made with the instrument on 44 teeth of six orthodontic patients. By repeating the analyses the instrument reproducibility was demonstrated. The pattern of tooth movement to applied force was explored and related to possible stress levels in tipping movements. A second holding device allowed both micrometers to contact a dental extension which was fixed to a maxillary central incisor. An incisor from each of four preorthodontic and two postorthodontic patients was analyzed. Over 200 clinical centers of rotation were calculated from measurements of tooth movements at two points on the tooth's long axis. Results from the first three patients were erratic. The rotation centers of the last three patients generally remained at midroot and also near the theoretical center of the tooth for all forces applied over 50 gm. More comprehensive studies on tooth mobility are recommended.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / This study was undertaken to histologically evaluate orthodontic tooth movement in hypothyroid and in normal Macaque speciosa monkeys. The experimental animals were rendered hypothyroid by radiosurgically altering the thyroid gland. A clinically acceptable orthodontic force was delivered to the anterior teeth of the monkeys. After the desired movement, a histologic investigation was made to correlate tissue responses with pressure, tension and root resorption. There was no significant difference among the three experimental animals. Likewise, there was no significant difference between the control animal and the three experimental animals. Osteoblastic and osteoclastic activity occurred to a comparable degree in both the experimental and control animals and was within normal limits for the amount of orthodontic tooth movement achieved. Root resorption was evident in both orthodontically treated and non-treated teeth in both the experimental and control animals. The root resorption observed was not significantly different, quantitatively or strategically, between the experimental and the control animals. Repair of root resorption was evident in both the experimental and control animals.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / The main purpose of this investigation was to produce bodily tooth movement. A force system based on the moment to force ratio (m/p ratio) was developed and applied to the teeth by means of springs similar to those used in segmented arch technique. An histologic investigation followed the experimentation. The sample consisted of five adult dogs and a relatively young one, all males. On these dogs, light forces of 165 and 147 gms were used for a period of 17, 30 and 35 days. and heavy forces of 490, 450 and 455 gms were used for a period of 120, 107 and 106 days. An intraperitoneal injection of a vital dye, procion red H8BS, was made before placing the appliance in the mouth and used as a marker between old and new bone. Bodily tooth movement was assessed by measuring new bone apposition on the tension side. Most of the teeth did show pure bodily movement, however, slight tipping was noticed in some instances. Direct bone resorption was recorded in all the teeth moved with light and heavy forces with the exception of very few small areas of hyalinization. The only difference between light and heavy forces was in the severity of root resorption. It was found that the heavier the force, the greater was the anchorage loss. The rate of tooth movement was continuous but not constant.

The rapid growth of the older population in the United States has led to a considerable upsurge in the housing market. This marks a pivotal moment for assessing the affordability and availability of housing, as well as the demand for housing based on geographical locations. These factors will be of paramount importance for the aging population in the future. The first part of the study will focus on analyzing the effect of house and area prices on residential mobility, as well as to explore differences in this effect among younger and older elderly individuals. We find that elderly individuals are more likely to move when the destination home is relatively more expensive than their current home, which contradicts the life-cycle housing consumption hypothesis of capital expenditure in old age. In the second part, we focus on the impact of social attachment and mobility for within-state and out-of-state. The results show that individuals prefer to move within-state to outside, the more attached they are to an area. The results have differences among race and education. In the third part, we focus on the effect of social connections with distance traveled conditional on mobility. The results suggest that individuals are willing to travel farther distances, the more attached they are to a location.

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