The author discusses the difficulties that arise with the determination of the concentration of the iodinated contrast agents in the blood stream via the traditional gray-scale computer tomography and searches for the new imaging modalities that would provide for better sensitivity. The topic of the energy-discriminative color CT is discussed as a potential solution and its suitability is evaluated by performing the experiments on the contrast materials phantom and the phantom containing the iohexol solutions of varying concentrations on the original CT system assembled by the author. A method of the effective atomic number mapping is discussed as a viable alternative to the traditional attenuation-based tomography. The dependency of the effective atomic number of the compound on the energy of the x-ray beam is a phenomenon well recorded in the literature, yet no formal study exists to correctly predict the effective atomic number for a given compound. An extensive physical model is developed based on the previously presented models and adaptations unique to the task in order to determine the effective atomic numbers for exact energies experimentally. The method is tested on different materials. The resultant effective atomic numbers for the water, oil, and iohexol-water solutions of varying concentrations are presented in the study. The effects of the k-edge on both the linear attenuation curve and the effective atomic number curve are discussed. The possible future venues of the research are presented in the final part of the thesis. / Master of Science

Um material composto, formado pela mistura de muitos elementos, pode ser convenientemente descrito, a partir da forma com que a radiação interage com ele, como se fosse formado por um elemento ctício com um número atômico efetivo, Zef. Esse parâmetro não é constante com a energia, entretanto, pode ser considerado uma ferramenta útil na caracterização de tecidos biológicos, materiais tecido-equivalentes e dosímetros. Várias formas de determinação do Zef foram propostas na literatura, dentre elas, estão os métodos de atenuação que se baseiam no uso da seção de choque total (obtido a partir do coeciente de atenuação linear mássico (µ/)) e os métodos de espalhamento que se baseiam na razão entre as seções de choque diferenciais Rayleigh e Compton. Neste trabalho, buscou-se estudar métodos de obter Zef de forma experimental e teórica, por dois métodos (atenuação e espalhamento) para completar lacunas existentes na literatura. No método de atenuação, foi utilizado o (µ/) como grandeza de interação que, no conhecimento dos autores, ainda não foi utilizado. Para isso, arranjos experimentais que permitam determinar a densidade, , e o coeciente de atenuação linear, µ, foi construído. O µ (de materiais tecido-equivalentes e tecidos biológicos) foi determinado tanto para energia de 59.54 keV (fonte 241Am) com detector CdTe, quanto para faixa de energia entre 15 e 45 keV (tubo de raios X com alvo de W) com detector SDD. Um novo programa computacional para determinar o número atômico efetivo a partir do µ/ foi implementado e validado. A sensibilidade do método foi estudada de forma a determinar Zef de forma adequada. No método de espalhamento, arranjo experimental para detectar os fótons espalhados Rayleigh e Compton (utilizando fonte de 241Am e detector CdTe) foi construído, otimizado e validado. Um programa computacional para determinação de Zef através da razão Rayleigh/Compton, R/C, foi elaborado e validado . A sensibilidade do método foi estudada e analisada de forma a determinar Zef de maneira adequada. No método de atenuação, o arranjos para determinação do µ/ possibilitaram determiná-lo com diferenças menores que 6% quando comparados com a literatura e incertezas de 3.8% para 59.54 keV e até 7% na faixa de 15 à 45 keV. Também foi vericado que o método é adequado para determinar Zef para energias de até 60 keV, pois a partir deste valor, as incertezas em Zef aumentam (para mais de 10%). No método de espalhamento, o arranjo para determinação da razão Rayleigh/Compton possibilitaram obter medidas de R/C com menos de 10% de diferença com a literatura e incertezas de 7% e foi vericado ainda, que a faixa de momento transferido entre 1 Å1 e 2 Å1 é adequada para determinar Zef (incertezas menores que 3% de incerteza) / A composite material, formed by the mixture of several elements, can be conveniently described by, from the way the radiation interacts with it, as if it were formed by a factitious element with an eective atomic number (Zef). This parameter is not constant with the energy, however, can be considered as an useful tool for characterization of biological tissues, tissue-equivalent materials and dosimeters. Several ways for the determination of Zef were proposed by the literature, among them, are the attenuation methods which are based on the total cross section (derived form the mass attenuation coecient (µ/)) and the scatter methods which are based on the ratio between the Rayleigh and Compton dierential cross sections. In this work, were study ways to obtain Zef experimentally and theoretically by two methods (attenuation and scattering) to ll the gaps in the literature. In the attenuation method µ/ was used as interaction coecient which, in the authors knowledge, it hasnt been used. For this purpose, experimental arrangements to determine the density () and the linear attenuation coecient (µ) were built. The µ (of tissue-equivalent material and biological tissues) were determined both for 59.54 keV (241Am source) with a CdTe detector and for the energy rage between 15 and 45 keV (X ray tube, W target) with a SDD detector. A new computational program for determining Zef through µ/ was implemented and validated. The method sensibility was studied in the way to determine Zef properly. In the scattering method, an experimental arrangement to detect the Rayleigh and Compton scattered photons (with 241Am source and a CdTe detector) was built, optimized and validated. A computational program to determine Zef through Rayleigh to Compton ratio, R/C, was elaborated and validated. The methods sensibility was studied and analyzed to determine Zef properly. In the attenuation method, the arrangements for determining µ/ allowed to determine it with dierences smaller than 6% when compared with the literature and uncertainties of 3.8% for 59.54 keV and up to 7% in the range of 15 to 45 keV. It has also been found that the method is suitable for determining Zef for energies of up to 60 keV, because above that energy, the uncertainties in Zef increases (more than 10%). In the scattering method, the arrangement for determining R/C made it possible to obtain measurements of R/C with less than 10% dierence with the literature and uncertainties of 7% and it was veried that the momentum transfer range between 1 Å1 and 2 Å1 is suitable for determining Zef (uncertainties less than 3 % uncertainty)

Um material composto, formado pela mistura de muitos elementos, pode ser convenientemente descrito, a partir da forma com que a radiação interage com ele, como se fosse formado por um elemento ctício com um número atômico efetivo, Zef. Esse parâmetro não é constante com a energia, entretanto, pode ser considerado uma ferramenta útil na caracterização de tecidos biológicos, materiais tecido-equivalentes e dosímetros. Várias formas de determinação do Zef foram propostas na literatura, dentre elas, estão os métodos de atenuação que se baseiam no uso da seção de choque total (obtido a partir do coeciente de atenuação linear mássico (µ/)) e os métodos de espalhamento que se baseiam na razão entre as seções de choque diferenciais Rayleigh e Compton. Neste trabalho, buscou-se estudar métodos de obter Zef de forma experimental e teórica, por dois métodos (atenuação e espalhamento) para completar lacunas existentes na literatura. No método de atenuação, foi utilizado o (µ/) como grandeza de interação que, no conhecimento dos autores, ainda não foi utilizado. Para isso, arranjos experimentais que permitam determinar a densidade, , e o coeciente de atenuação linear, µ, foi construído. O µ (de materiais tecido-equivalentes e tecidos biológicos) foi determinado tanto para energia de 59.54 keV (fonte 241Am) com detector CdTe, quanto para faixa de energia entre 15 e 45 keV (tubo de raios X com alvo de W) com detector SDD. Um novo programa computacional para determinar o número atômico efetivo a partir do µ/ foi implementado e validado. A sensibilidade do método foi estudada de forma a determinar Zef de forma adequada. No método de espalhamento, arranjo experimental para detectar os fótons espalhados Rayleigh e Compton (utilizando fonte de 241Am e detector CdTe) foi construído, otimizado e validado. Um programa computacional para determinação de Zef através da razão Rayleigh/Compton, R/C, foi elaborado e validado . A sensibilidade do método foi estudada e analisada de forma a determinar Zef de maneira adequada. No método de atenuação, o arranjos para determinação do µ/ possibilitaram determiná-lo com diferenças menores que 6% quando comparados com a literatura e incertezas de 3.8% para 59.54 keV e até 7% na faixa de 15 à 45 keV. Também foi vericado que o método é adequado para determinar Zef para energias de até 60 keV, pois a partir deste valor, as incertezas em Zef aumentam (para mais de 10%). No método de espalhamento, o arranjo para determinação da razão Rayleigh/Compton possibilitaram obter medidas de R/C com menos de 10% de diferença com a literatura e incertezas de 7% e foi vericado ainda, que a faixa de momento transferido entre 1 Å1 e 2 Å1 é adequada para determinar Zef (incertezas menores que 3% de incerteza) / A composite material, formed by the mixture of several elements, can be conveniently described by, from the way the radiation interacts with it, as if it were formed by a factitious element with an eective atomic number (Zef). This parameter is not constant with the energy, however, can be considered as an useful tool for characterization of biological tissues, tissue-equivalent materials and dosimeters. Several ways for the determination of Zef were proposed by the literature, among them, are the attenuation methods which are based on the total cross section (derived form the mass attenuation coecient (µ/)) and the scatter methods which are based on the ratio between the Rayleigh and Compton dierential cross sections. In this work, were study ways to obtain Zef experimentally and theoretically by two methods (attenuation and scattering) to ll the gaps in the literature. In the attenuation method µ/ was used as interaction coecient which, in the authors knowledge, it hasnt been used. For this purpose, experimental arrangements to determine the density () and the linear attenuation coecient (µ) were built. The µ (of tissue-equivalent material and biological tissues) were determined both for 59.54 keV (241Am source) with a CdTe detector and for the energy rage between 15 and 45 keV (X ray tube, W target) with a SDD detector. A new computational program for determining Zef through µ/ was implemented and validated. The method sensibility was studied in the way to determine Zef properly. In the scattering method, an experimental arrangement to detect the Rayleigh and Compton scattered photons (with 241Am source and a CdTe detector) was built, optimized and validated. A computational program to determine Zef through Rayleigh to Compton ratio, R/C, was elaborated and validated. The methods sensibility was studied and analyzed to determine Zef properly. In the attenuation method, the arrangements for determining µ/ allowed to determine it with dierences smaller than 6% when compared with the literature and uncertainties of 3.8% for 59.54 keV and up to 7% in the range of 15 to 45 keV. It has also been found that the method is suitable for determining Zef for energies of up to 60 keV, because above that energy, the uncertainties in Zef increases (more than 10%). In the scattering method, the arrangement for determining R/C made it possible to obtain measurements of R/C with less than 10% dierence with the literature and uncertainties of 7% and it was veried that the momentum transfer range between 1 Å1 and 2 Å1 is suitable for determining Zef (uncertainties less than 3 % uncertainty)

Pour analyser les images en tomodensitométrie, une méthode stœchiométrique est gé- néralement utilisée. Une courbe relie les unités Hounsfield d’une image à la densité électronique du milieu. La tomodensitométrie à double énergie permet d’obtenir des informations supplémentaires sur ces images. Une méthode stœchiométrique a été dé- veloppée pour permettre de déterminer les valeurs de densité électronique et de numéro atomique effectif à partir d’une paire d’images d’un tomodensitomètre à double énergie. Le but de cette recherche est de développer une nouvelle méthode d’identification de tissus en utilisant ces paramètres extraits en tomodensitométrie à double énergie. Cette nouvelle méthode est comparée avec la méthode standard de tomodensitométrie à simple énergie. Par ailleurs, l’impact dosimétrique de bien identifier un tissu est déterminé. Des simulations Monte Carlo permettent d’utiliser des fantômes numériques dont tous les paramètres sont connus. Les différents fantômes utilisés permettent d’étalonner les méthodes stœchiométriques, de comparer la polyvalence et la robustesse des méthodes d’identification de tissus double énergie et simple énergie, ainsi que de comparer les distributions de dose dans des fantômes uniformes de mêmes densités, mais de compo- sitions différentes. La méthode utilisant la tomodensitométrie à double énergie fournit des valeurs de densi- tés électroniques plus exactes, quelles que soient les conditions étudiées. Cette méthode s’avère également plus robuste aux variations de densité des tissus. L’impact dosimé- trique d’une bonne identification de tissus devient important pour des traitements aux énergies plus faibles, donc aux énergies d’imagerie et de curiethérapie. / A stoichiometric method is usually used to analyze computed tomography images. A curve links the Hounsfield units on the images to the electron density in a given me- dium. Dual-energy computed tomography gives additional information on a scan. A stoi- chiometric method was developed to acquire both electron density and effective atomic number from a pair of images. The aim of this research is to develop a new method to identify tissues using the parame- ters extracted from dual-energy computed tomography. This new method is compared to the standard single-energy computed tomography segmentation method. Furthermore, the effect of correctly assigning tissues on dose distribution is studied. Monte Carlo simulations allow the use of perfectly known numerical phantoms. Dif- ferent phantoms allowed the calibration of the stoichiometric methods, the comparison of the versatility and the robustness of the dual-energy and the single-energy methods, and the comparison of dose distribution in phantoms of same densities, but of different compositions. The dual-energy identification method gives more accurate values of electron density in any studied condition. This method is also more robust to tissues of variable density. The dosimetric impact of an accurate identification becomes more important for treatments using lower energy photons, such as imaging energies and brachytherapy.

Submitted by Angela Maria de Oliveira (amolivei@uepg.br) on 2018-06-06T14:39:52Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 811 bytes, checksum: e39d27027a6cc9cb039ad269a5db8e34 (MD5) Tech, Lohane.pdf: 2007649 bytes, checksum: ed3cf3b82a08ab6680c21d8be8071469 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-06-06T14:39:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 811 bytes, checksum: e39d27027a6cc9cb039ad269a5db8e34 (MD5) Tech, Lohane.pdf: 2007649 bytes, checksum: ed3cf3b82a08ab6680c21d8be8071469 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-02-26 / No presente trabalho foram analisadas 25 solos com diversas texturas, do estado do Paraná Brasil. Com o intuito de avaliar os parâmetros de interação da radiação com os solos, as amostras foram submetidas a análise semi-quantitativa por fluorescência de raios X (FRX) por dispersão de energia a fim de se obter os teores dos óxidos que compunham o solo. Dois tamanhos de partículas foram analisados, sendo eles: diâmetro de 45 μm, que é o padrão recomendado pelo fabricante do equipamento de FRX, e diâmetro de 2-1 mm. O teor dos óxidos, o coeficiente de atenuação de massa (⁄), a seção de choque molecular (), a seção de choque atômica (), a seção de choque eletrônica (), o número atômico efetivo () e a densidade eletrônica (), foram analisadas para os 25 solos para os dois tamanhos de partículas. Os resultados mostraram diferenças nos teores de óxidos dos solos entre um tamanho de agregado e outro, constatando mudanças nas porcentagens do óxidos de Al2O3, SiO2 e Fe2O3. Como consequência, houve alteração nos valores dos outros parâmetros analisados, as seções de choque, o número atômico efetivo e a densidade eletrônica. A seção de choque molecular e a densidade eletrônica mostrou dependência com o teor dos óxidos Al2O3 e SiO2, que são encontrados em maior porcentagem nos solos arenosos e nos solos com textura franco, para os dois tamanhos de agregados. A seção de choque atômica mostrou dependência com o número total de unidades de fórmulas moleculares presentes na composição do solo. Já os parâmetros restantes, coeficiente de atenuação de massa, seção de choque eletrônica e número atômico efetivo mostraram dependência com o óxido Fe2O3, que é encontrado em maior teor nas amostras com textura mais argilosa, para os dois tamanhos de agregados. Desta forma, observou-se dependência da textura e do tamanho de partículas ambas com a composição química elementar porque no primeiro caso, diferentes texturas são relacionadas a composição mineral e elementar nos diferentes solos e a segunda devido a conformação dos agregados nos dois conjuntos analisados. / This study analysed 25 soil samples from the State of Paraná, Brazil, with different textures. Aiming at evaluating the parameters of radiation interaction with the matter, the samples were submitted to the semi-quantitative analysis using energy dispersive X-ray (XRF) fluorescence, to obtain the content of oxides contained in the soil mixture. Two particle sizes were analysed, being: the 45 μm, wich is the standard required by the manufacturer of the X-ray fluorescence equipment, and the 2-1mm. The oxide content, mass attenuation coefficient (⁄), molecular cross section (), atomic cross section (), electronic cross section (), effective atomic number () and the electronic density () were analysed in the 25 samples and for the two particle sizes. The results showed differences in the soil oxide content between one aggregate size and the other, revealing changes in the percentage of the Al2O3, SiO2 and Fe2O3 oxides. With the difference observed, there was change in the values of other parameters under analysis, the cross sections, the effective atomic number and the electronic density. The molecular cross section and the effective electronic density showed dependence on the content of Al2O3 and SiO2 oxides, which were found in higher percentages in sandy and loam soils, for both aggregate sizes. The atomic cross section was seen to present dependence on the total number of molecular formula units contained in the soil composition. While the remaining parameters, mass attenuation coefficient, electronic cross sections and the effective atomic number showed dependence on the Fe2O3 oxide, whose higher contents were found in the clay textured samples, for both aggregate sizes. In this way, it was observed texture and size dependency, both with the elementary chemical composition because in the first case, different textures are related to elementary and mineral composition in the different soils and the second due to the conformation of the aggregated in both analyzed arrays.