The main theme of this dissertation is the study of two racemic compounds: a bimetallic complex, [(tpy)Ru(tppz)PtCl](PF₆)₃, and a trimetallic complex, [ClPt(tppz)Ru(tppz)PtCl](PF₆)₄, in solution and in the solid state, where tpy is 2,2':6',2''-terpyridine and tppz is 2,3,5,6-tetrakis(2-pyridyl)pyrazine. These two supramolecular assemblies display remarkably different stereochemistry, electrochemistry and photochemistry. The chapters in this document deal with a multidisciplinary project that is fundamental to the design and synthesis of similar entities with potential applications as antitumor agents. Chapter 1 gives an overview on the metal polyazine supramolecules. More specifically, the section is focused on the tridentate ruthenium and platinum metallic supramolecular assemblies with emphasis on their functionality and the methods used to study such systems. Chapter 2 describes the design and syntheses of the title complexes and their analogs using a building block strategy. The details of the experimental methods are included in this section. Chapter 3 presents the identification of the title complexes in solution and in the solid state by means of single crystal crystallography, mass spectrometry including FAB-MS and ESI-MS, and multiple NMR techniques including 1D ¹H-NMR, ¹⁹⁵Pt-NMR and 2D COSY, NOESY and ¹⁹⁵Pt-¹H HMQC, as well as dynamic ¹H-NMR at variable temperatures. The bi- and tri-metallic complexes are crystallized in the chiral space group of C2/c and P21/c as racemic compounds. The interconversion of the three steroisomers, M-M, P-P and M-P of trimetallic complexes are detected in the NMR timescale. The assignments of the atypical NMR resonance of the bi- and tri-metallic complexes are supported with the help of multidimensional NMR techniques and NMR spectroscopy of known systems. The process of assigning the NMR spectra is accomplished step by step with complexities presented by ring current effects. The 1D-fiber, 2D-plate and 3D-flowerlike topography of the trimetallic complex of [ClPt(tppz)Ru(tppz)PtCl](PF₆)₄ was illustrated by SEM. Chapter 4 demonstrates the electrochemical and photochemical differences between the title complexes and a comparison to known systems. Electrochemically, the Ru^II,Pt^II bimetallic and trimetallic complexes display Ru^II/III oxidations at 1.63 and 1.83 V and ligand-based reduction at -0.16 and -0.03 V versus Ag/AgCl, respectively. Spectroscopically, the Ru(dπ)⟶ tppz(π*) MLCT transitions are red-shifted relative to the monometallic synthons ([(tpy)Ru(tppz)](PF₆)₂, λ_max^abs = 472 nm and [Ru(tppz)₂](PF₆)₂, λ_max^abs = 478 nm) occurring in the visible region, centered at 530 and 538 nm in CH₃CN for [(tpy)Ru(tppz)PtCl](PF₆)₃ and [ClPt(tppz)Ru(tppz)PtCl](PF₆)₄, respectively, consistent with the bridging coordination of the tppz ligand. [ClPt(tppz)Ru(tppz)PtCl](PF₆)₄ displays an intense emission (Φ^em = 5.4×10₄) from the Ru(dπ)⟶ tppz(π*) ³MLCT state at RT with λ_max^em = 754 nm and lifetime ofτ„ = 80 ns in CH₃CN solution. The trimetallic complex, [ClPt(tppz)Ru(tppz)PtCl](PF₆)₄, exhibits a strong emission property in the solid state with λ_max^em = 764 nm, which was also studied by confocal laser induced emission scanning microscopy. By contrast, a barely detectable emission was observed for the bimetallic complex, [(tpy)Ru(tppz)PtCl](PF₆)₃. The redox and luminescence differences between bi- and tri-metallic complexes is the consequence of the nature of these supramolecular assemblies. All together the data suggest strong PtPt interactions in solution providing for assembly of these molecules into dimers or larger assemblies. Chapter 5 reports the applications of these complexes as bioactive species interacting with DNA. The prelimary data show the title complexes bind to DNA producing larger changes in DNA migration during gel electrophoreses than does the well-established anticancer drug, cisplatin. Preliminary study indicates trimetallic complex [ClPt(tppz)Ru(tppz)PtCl](PF₆)₄ can photochemically condenses DNA. This data could provide a form for development of a new class of photodynamic therapy agents in cancer treatment. Chapter 6 concludes with summaries of current research and perspective for further work. / Ph. D.

Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is a coenzyme that participates in the redox process of flavoenzymes. Attempts to characterize the catalytic pathways of these enzymes have relied in part on the use of FAD chemical models. The efforts described in this dissertation focus on the chemical model approach to investigate the mechanism of the monoamine oxidase (MAO) catalyzed oxidation of the cyclic tertiary allylamine 1-methyl-4-(2-methyl-1H-pyrrol-2-yl)-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (TMMP), which is a close analog of the parkinsonian-inducing designer drug 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). MAO-B catalyzes the conversion of MPTP and its derivatives into active neurotoxins in the brain that subsequently mediate neurogenerative processes that mimic the events leading to idiopathic Parkinson\'s disease. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors are currently used to treat early stages of Parkinson\'s disease. Two FAD chemical models are examined in this project: 5-ethyl-3-methyllumiflavinium perchlorate (5Et3MLF+ClO4-) and 3-methyllumiflavin (3MLF). The flavinium salt 5Et3MLF+ClO4- is an activated form of 3MLF. These FAD chemical models have been used to examine the MAO catalyzed oxidation. MAO-B is expressed in the brain and is known to be involved in the conversion of TMMP into the neurotoxic metabolite 1-methyl-4-phenyl pyridnium (MMP+). MAO-B is responsible for the alpha-carbon oxidation of TMMP to yield 1-methyl-4-(2-methylpyrrol-2-yl)-2,3-dihydropyridinium (DHP+), which then undergoes a second 2-electron oxidation to MMP+. Previous findings demonstrated that 3MLF and 5Et3MLF+ClO4- promoted the oxidation reaction of primary and secondary amines but not tertiary amines. However, the cyclic tertiary allylamine TMMP has not been examined experimentally. Therefore, the alpha-carbon oxidation of TMMP in the presence of the FAD chemical models is reported in this dissertation. The effect of dioxygen and water on the activity of these FAD models is also investigated. / Ph. D.

This research work has investigated the electrochemistry of glutathione (GSH)and homocysteine (HCSH) in order to develop sensors for these biological thiols.Ru(bpy)33+ and IrCl62− have been used as mediators for the electrooxidation of GSH andHCSH because direct oxidation of these thiols is slow at most conventional electrodes.The electrochemical detection of GSH and HCSH has been pursued because of their biological roles. Concerted proton electron transfer (CPET) and stepwise proton electron transfer(PT/ET) pathways have been observed in the electrooxidation of GSH and HCSH.Oxidation of GSH by Ru(bpy)33+ carried out in deuterated and undeuterated buffered (pH= pD = 5.0) and unbuffered solutions (pH = pD 5.0−9.0) indicates a CPET pathway. AtpH 7.0 buffered solution, the involvement of the buffer was obvious, with rate increasing as the buffer concentration increases − an indication of a general base catalysis. The oxidation of GSH by IrCl62− follows through CPET at pH 7.0 when the optimum concentration of the buffer is established. The plot of the rate vs. buffer concentration gave a curvature at lower buffer concentration and then a plateau at higher concentration,which implies a change in the rate determining step as the buffer concentration increases.At lower buffer concentration, proton transfer was seen to be the rate determining step asthe reduction current increases upon scan rate increase. In the oxidation of HCSH by IrCl62−, CPET was observed at pH = pD values of7.0 and 8.0, whereas PT/ET was seen at pH = pD values of 9.0 and 10. Increase in the buffer concentration at pH 7.0 revealed the contribution of the buffer, in that, the oxidation proceeds more efficiently, seeing that the catalytic peak current shifts more negatively and the peak broadness diminishes. Increase in the temperature for the electrooxidation of HCSH resulted in increase in the rate.

Foram sintetizados, purificados e caracterizados os peróxidos cíclicos: peróxido de difenoíla (1), dimetil-1,2-dioxetanona (2), e spiro-adamantil α-peróxi lactona (3), e determinados seus parâmetros de quimiluminescência. Foram redeterminados os rendimentos quânticos singlete na decomposição catalisada de 1 e 2 em condições análogas as utilizadas anteriormente na literatura, obtendo-se valores várias ordens de grandeza menores que os inicialmente relatados para estes sistemas padrão para a formulação do mecanismo Luminescência Iniciada Quimicamente por Troca de Elétron (Chemically Initiated Electron Exchange Luminescence - CIEEL). O efeito de gaiola de solvente, utilizando-se o sistema binário tolueno/difenilmetano, sobre o rendimento quântico na decomposição de 1 catalisada por rubreno, mostrou-se consideravelmente menor para este sistema intermolecular do que o observado no sistema intramolecular da decomposição induzida de 1,2-dioxetanos fenóxi-substituidos. Foram determinados pela primeira vez os parâmetros de quimiluminescência na decomposição unimolecular e catalisada da spiro-adamantil α-peróxi lactona (3), mostrando que esta é a α-peróxi lactona mais estável sintetizada e estudada até o momento. Este peróxido é sujeito à decomposição catalisada por ativadores adequados, envolvendo transferência de elétron, porém, com eficiência baixa devido a um impedimento estérico exercido pelo substituinte spiro-adamantila sobre a interação do peróxido com o ativador. O rendimento quântico singlete máximo obtido na decomposição catalisada de 3 é de 1%, valor consideravelmente menor que os determinados para sistemas intramoleculares. A decomposição dos peróxidos cíclicos 1 a 3 é catalisada por fenolatos como ativadores, porém, os rendimentos singlete obtidos nesta reação são baixos, entre 10-3 e 10-7 E mol-1. Os resultados obtidos com este sistema modelo intermolecular para a decomposição induzida por transferência intramolecular de elétron de 1,2-dioxetanos fenóxi-substituidos, demonstram claramente que esta última transformação quimiluminescente de alta eficiência deve ocorrer por uma retro-transferência de elétron intramolecular e não intermolecular como proposto na literatura, e como é necessariamente o caso no sistema modelo estudado no presente trabalho. / The cyclic peroxides diphenoyl peroxide (1), dimethyl-1,2-dioxetanone (2) and spiro-adamantyl α-peroxy lactone (3) were synthesized, purified and characterized, as well as its chemiluminescence parameters determined. The singlet quantum yields in the catalyzed decomposition of 1 and 2 were re-determined in experimental conditions equivalent to those formerly utilized in the literature, obtaining values various orders of magnitude lower than the ones initially reported for these model systems for the formulation of the Chemically Initiated Electron Exchange Luminescence\" (CIEEL) mechanism. The solvent-cage effect on the singlet quantum yields in the rubrene catalyzed decomposition of 1, using the binary system toluene / diphenylmethane, showed to be considerably lower for this intermolecular system than the one observed in the intramolecular system of the induced phenoxy-substituted 1,2-dioxetane decomposition. The chemiluminescence parameters in the unimolecular and catalyzed spiro-adamantyl α-peroxylactone (3) decomposition were determined for the first time, showing that 3 is the most stable α-peroxylactone synthesized and studied up to now. This peroxide is subject to catalyzed decomposition by appropriate activators involving electron transfer, however, with low efficiency due to the steric effect of the spiro-adamantyl substituents on the interaction of the peroxide with the activator. The maximum singlet quantum yield obtained in the catalyzed decomposition of 3 is 1 %, a value considerably lower than those determined for intramolecular systems. The decomposition of the cyclic peroxides 1 to 3 is catalyzed by fenolato ions as activators, thus the singlet quantum yields measured for this reaction are low, between 10-3 e 10-7 E mol-1. The results obtained for this intermolecular model system for the induced phenoxy-substituted 1,2-dioxetane decomposition demonstrate clearly that the latter highly efficient chemiluminescent transformation should occur by an intramolecular back-electron transfer and not by an intermolecular one as proposed in the literature, and as is necessarily the case in the model system studied in this work.

Artificial photosynthesis is often considered to have great potential to provide alternative, renewable fuels by harvesting, conversion and storage of solar energy. One promising approach is the development of modular molecular photocatalysts inspired by natural photosynthetic enzymes. The first part of this thesis deals with artificial mimics of the water oxidizing photosystem II composed of a chromophore and an electron relay as synthetic counterpart of the P680-TyrZ/His190 ensemble of photosystem II. Three ruthenium polypyridyl - imidazole - phenol complexes with varying position of a methyl group on the phenol ring (Ru-xMe) were synthesized and characterized by electrochemical and photophysical methods. As an improvement compared to earlier complexes the increased redox potential (~0.9 V vs. Ferrocene) of the phenol groups makes their function as an electron relay in a photocatalytic system for water oxidation thermodynamically possible. Time-resolved absorption studies revealed fast intramolecular electron transfer (<5-10 µs in aprotic solvent and <100 ns in water) despite the low driving force and the importance of the hydrogen bond between the phenol and the imidazole group was put in evidence. Slight differences between the three Ru-xMe complexes and investigation of the effect of external bases allowed to derive a mechanistic picture in which the imidazole is involved in a "proton domino" reaction. Accepting the phenolic proton upon ligand oxidation (within the H-bond) renders its second nitrogen site more acidic and only deprotonation of this site pulls the overall equilibrium completely towards oxidation of the ligand. Another part of this thesis comprises a chromophore-tryptophan construct synthesized using a click chemistry approach. Light-induced oxidation of Trp in this Ru-tryptophan complex was shown to follow ETPT mechanism. Depending on the pH conditions tryptophan radicals, either Trp* or TrpH*⁺ were detected and spectral measurement at different time showed the transition between the two forms. Deprotonation of the radical was dependent on the concentration of water as proton acceptor. Later part of the thesis deals with efforts to covalently bind a catalytic unit to the previously characterized chromophore-electron relay module. The click chemistry approach was not successful to obtain the final photocatalytic assembly. Therefore bimolecular activation of a Mn salen catalyst was performed and formation of Mn(IV) species was observed. As a step towards utilization of these types of photocatalysts in a photoelectrochemical cell a [Ru(bpy)₃]²⁺ chromophore with phosphonate anchoring groups (Ru-Phosphonate) was synthesized and grafted on the surface of a TiO₂ mesoporous semiconductor surface anode to perform photocurrent measurements.

Submitted by TIAGO AZEVEDO BENITES null (tiagoazb@gmail.com) on 2017-10-09T17:59:58Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese Tiago.pdf: 5384805 bytes, checksum: 86cf0d44920d96e8154badd25a07c674 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Monique Sasaki (sayumi_sasaki@hotmail.com) on 2017-10-09T19:38:54Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 benites_ta_dr_araiq.pdf: 5384805 bytes, checksum: 86cf0d44920d96e8154badd25a07c674 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-10-09T19:38:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 benites_ta_dr_araiq.pdf: 5384805 bytes, checksum: 86cf0d44920d96e8154badd25a07c674 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-09-01 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Dentro da eletroquímica, o estudo de reações de transferência de elétrons (TE) pode ser explorado por meio de eletrodos de ouro modificados com monocamadas auto-organizadas (SAMs), visto que elas são capazes de modificar as propriedades físico-químicas superficiais e controlar a cinética de TE. Este trabalho investigou as reações de TE em eletrodos de ouro modificados com SAMs eletroativas. Especificamente, foi estudado a cinética de TE em SAMs de 11-ferrocenil-undecanotiol sobre superfícies de ouro, por meio de análise de voltametria cíclica e espectroscopia de impedância/capacitância eletroquímica (EIE/ECE). Por meio dessas técnicas foi possível estimar variáveis como a densidade de estados redox (aproximadamente 3,4×〖10〗^14 estados cm-2 próximos aos valores reportados na literatura), de capacitância eletroquímica ou redox (137(±9) μF 〖cm〗^(-2)), a constante cinética de transferência de elétrons em 1,05×〖10〗^4 s^(-1) similares às reportadas por Creager, além da estimativa da energia de reorganização de Marcus (λ) em torno de 1,0 eV, valores similares a outros já previamente estimados para funcionalizações de SAMs eletroativas. Expandiram-se essas análises por meio da imobilização de complexos eletroativos de Bis(2,2′-bipiridina)-(5-Aminofenantrolina)rutênio bis(hexafluorofosfato) sobre superfícies de Au, por síntese orgânica com tióis ancoradores de diferentes cadeias (cisteína e 3-ácido carboxílico-6-mercaptopiridina), utilizando reação de ativação com DIC/HOBt em acetonitrila. Neste caso, obteve-se uma densidade de estados redox de cerca de 8,9×〖10〗^14 estados cm-2 e 9,3×〖10〗^14 estados cm-2, além de uma constante cinética de 2,6×〖10〗^3 s^(-1) e 1,07×〖10〗^3 s^(-1) para as abordagens I (3-ácido carboxílico-6-mercaptopiridina) e II (Cisteína) respectivamente. Resultados sugeriram uma maior capacidade das moléculas ancoradoras compostas de anel piridinico (abordagem I) na condução de carga quando comparados com a abordagem II, o que foi posteriormente confirmado por análise de condutância em que a abordagem I apresentou G=6×〖10〗^(-3) S contra G=2×〖10〗^(-3) S da abordagem II. Este trabalho apresentou uma abordagem teórico-experimental que relaciona as componentes físico-químicas quânticas através de uma nova perspectiva baseada nos estudos teóricos de Marcus-Buttiker e em análises experimentais centradas na capacitância eletroquímica. / In electrochemistry, the study of electron transfer reactions (TE) can be explored using Au electrodes modified with self-assembled monolayers (SAMs), since they are able to modify the physicochemical properties of electrodes surface and control the TE kinetics. This work investigated TE reactions on Au electrodes modified with SAMs. Specifically, TE kinetics were studied using 11-ferrocenyl-undecanethiol SAMs on Au surfaces by means of cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance/capacitance spectroscopy (EIS/ECS) analysis. By means of these techniques, it was possible to estimate variables such as the density of redox states (approximately 3.4 × 1014 states per cm-2 , near the reported results in the literature), electrochemical or redox capacitance (137(±9) �� ��−2 ), the kinetic electron transfer constant at 1.05 × 104 � −1 similar to those reported by Creager, in addition to the estimation of the Marcus´ reorganization energy (�) of around 1.0 eV, value similar to others already previously estimated for functionalization of electroactive SAMs. These analyzes were expanded by immobilization of Bis(2,2'-bipyridine)-(5-Aminophenanthroline)ruthenium-bis (hexafluorophosphate) electroactive complexes on Au surfaces by organic synthesis with anionic thiols of different chains (cysteine and 3-carboxylic acid-6-mercaptopyridine), using activation reaction with DIC/HOBt in acetonitrile. In this case, a redox state density of about 8.9 × 1014 states cm-2 and 9.3 × 1014 states cm-2 , in addition to a kinetic constant of 2.6 × 103 � −1 and 1.07 × 103 � −1 to I (3-carboxylic acid-6- mercaptopyridine) and II (Cysteine) approaches, respectively, were used in the present study. Results suggesting a higher capacity of the pyridinium ring compound anchoring molecules (I approach) in charge conduction when compared to the II approach, which was later confirmed by conductance analysis: the I approach presented � = 6 × 10−3 � and � = 2 × 10−3 � for approach II. This work presented a theoretical-experimental approach relating the quantum physicochemical components through a new perspective based on the theoretical studies of Marcus-Buttiker and on experimental analyzes focused on the electrochemical capacitance.

The consecutive synthesis of 1,3,5-triferrocenyl-2,4,6-tris(ethynylferrocenyl)benzene (6c) is described using 1,3,5-Cl3-2,4,6-I3-C6 (2) as starting compound. Subsequent Sonogashira C,C cross-coupling of 2 with FcC[triple bond, length as m-dash]CH (3) in the molar ratio of 1 : 4 afforded solely 1,3,5-Cl3-2,4,6-(FcC[triple bond, length as m-dash]C)3-C6 (4c) (Fc = Fe(η5-C5H4)(η5-C5H5)). However, when 2 is reacted with 3 in a 1 : 3 ratio a mixture of 1,3,5-Cl3-2-(FcC[triple bond, length as m-dash]C)-4,6-I2-C6 (4a) and 1,3,5-Cl3-2,4-(FcC[triple bond, length as m-dash]C)2-6-I-C6 (4b) is obtained. Negishi C,C cross-coupling of 4c with FcZnCl (5) in the presence of catalytic amounts of [Pd(CH2C(CH3)2P(tC4H9)2)(μ-Cl)]2 gave 1,3-Cl2-5-Fc-2,4,6-(FcC[triple bond, length as m-dash]C)3-C6 (6a), 1-Cl-3,5-Fc2-2,4,6-(FcC[triple bond, length as m-dash]C)3-C6 (6b) and 1,3,5-Fc3-2,4,6-(FcC[triple bond, length as m-dash]C)3-C6 (6c) of which 6b is the main product. Column chromatography allowed the separation of these organometallic species. The structures of 4a,b and 6a in the solid state were determined by single crystal X-ray diffractometry showing a π–π interacting dimer (4b) and a complex π–π pattern for 6a. The electrochemical properties of 4a–c and 6a–c were studied by cyclic voltammetry (=CV) and square wave voltammetry (=SWV). It was found that the FcC[triple bond, length as m-dash]C-substituted benzenes 4a–c show only one reversible redox event, indicating a simultaneous oxidation of all ferrocenyl units, whereby 4c is most difficult to oxidise (4a, E°′1 = 190, ΔEp = 71; 4b, E°′1 = 195, ΔEp = 59; 4c, E°′1 = 390, ΔEp = 59 mV). In case of 4c, the oxidation states 4cn+ (n = 2, 3) are destabilised by the partial negative charge of the electronegative chlorine atoms, which compensates the repulsive electrostatic Fc+–Fc+ interactions with attractive electrostatic Fc+–Clδ− interactions. When ferrocenyl units are directly attached to the benzene C6 core, organometallic 6a shows three, 6b five and 6c six separated reversible waves highlighting that the Fc units can separately be oxidised. UV-Vis/NIR spectroscopy allowed to determine IVCT absorptions (=Inter Valence Charge Transfer) for 6cn+ (n = 1, 2) (n = 1: νmax = 7860 cm−1, εmax = 405 L mol−1 cm−1, Δν1/2 = 7070 cm−1; n = 2: νmax = 9070 cm−1, εmax = 620 L mol−1 cm−1, Δν1/2 = 8010 cm−1) classifying these mixed-valent species as weakly coupled class II systems according to Robin and Day, while for 6a,b only LMCT transitions (=ligand to metal charge transfer) could be detected. / Dieser Beitrag ist aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

Chemisorption of an organic monolayer to tune the surface properties of a transparent conductive oxide (TCO) electrode can improve the performance of organic electronic devices that rely on efficient charge transfer between an organic active layer and a TCO contact. Here, a series of perylene diimides (PDIs) was synthesized and used to study relationships between monolayer structure/properties and electron transfer kinetics at PDI-modified indium-tin oxide (ITO) electrodes. In these PDI molecules, one of the imide substituents is a benzene ring bearing a phosphonic acid (PA) and the other is a bulky aryl group that is twisted out of the plane of the PDI core. The size of the bulky aryl group and the substitution of the benzene ring bearing the PA were both varied, which altered the extent of aggregation when these molecules were absorbed as monolayer films (MLs) on ITO, as revealed by both attenuated total reflectance (ATR) and total internal reflection fluorescence spectra. Polarized ATR measurements indicate that, in these MLs, the long axis of the PDI core is tilted at an angle of 33-42 degrees relative to the surface normal; the tilt angle increased as the degree of bulky substitution increased. Rate constants for electron transfer (k(s,opt)) between these redox-active modifiers and ITO were determined by potential-modulated ATR spectroscopy. As the degree of PDI aggregation was reduced, k(s,opt) declined, which is attributed to a reduction in the lateral electron self-exchange rate between adsorbed PDI molecules, as well as the heterogeneous conductivity of the ITO electrode surface. Photoelectrochemical measurements using a dissolved aluminum phthalocyanine as an electron donor showed that ITO modified with any of these PDIs is a more effective electron-collecting electrode than bare ITO.

This thesis presents the results and discussion of the investigation of the effects of Brönsted bases on the kinetics and thermodynamics of two proton-coupled electron transfer processes: the mediated oxidation of glutathione and the electrochemical oxidation of hydroquinone. Proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) is the name given to reactions that involve the transfer of electron(s) accompanied by the exchange of proton(s). PCETs are found in many chemical and biological processes, some of current technological relevance such as the oxygen reduction reaction in fuel cells, which involves the transfer of four electrons and four protons (4e-, 4H+); or the splitting of water into protons (4H+), electrons (4e-) and oxygen (O2) efficiently achieved in photosynthesis. The study of PCET mechanisms is imperative to understanding biological processes as well as to developing more efficient technological applications. However, there are still many unanswered questions regarding the kinetic and thermodynamic performance of PCETs, and especially about the effect of different proton acceptors on the rate and mechanism of PCET reactions. This study aimed to investigate the effect of Brönsted bases as proton acceptors on the kinetics and thermodynamics of two model PCET processes, the oxidation of glutathione and hydroquinone. The analysis presented in this thesis provides insight into the influence of different proton acceptors on the mechanism of PCET and it does so by studying these reactions from a different angle, that one of the acid-base catalysis theory which has been successfully applied to the investigation of numerous chemical reactions coupled to proton transfer. We hope future research of PCETs can benefit from the knowledge of acid-base catalysis to better understand these reactions at a molecular level.

One-color resonance two-photo ionization (R2PI) spectra of mixed clusters of styrene molecule (S) with polar molecules [water (W), methanol (M), ethanol (E), and trifuoroethanol (T)] were measured through the S1←S0 transition of the styrene molecule. The spectra reveal a rapid increase in complexity with the number of polar molecules in the cluster, associated with van der Waal modes and isomeric forms. The spectral shifts of the cluster origins from the S1-S0 transition of the bare styrene molecule reflect the nature of the intermolecular interactions within the binary clusters. The obtained R2PI spectra xv were compared with the spectra of the analogous benzene containing clusters. The styrene-water and the styrene-methanol complexes exhibited very different spectral shifts and structures as compared to the benzene-water and benzene-methanol complexes, respectively. The favorable interactions of polar molecules with the olefin group of styrene may explain the strong inhibition effects of exerted by small concentrations of water and alcohols on the cationic polymerization of styrene. Size-specified intracluster proton transfer reactions were observed for mixed clusters of styrene dimer with water, methanol and ethanol molecules. It was proposed that the polar molecules tend to aggregate around the olefin center, which promotes the transfer of the charge from the propagating chain to the hydrogen-bonded polar molecules subcluster. The minimum number of polar molecules required for a proton transfer to take place exothermically depends on the proton affinity of the polar molecules subcluster. The estimated upper limit value for the proton affinity of styrene dimer radical was evaluated based on the energetic of the proton transfer reaction to be ≤ 220.4 kcal/mol. No intracluster reaction was observed for styrene-trifluoroethanol (STn) system. In order to provide a comparison between the styrene and benzene systems, the benzene-ethanol (BEn) and benzene-trifluoroethanol (BTn) clusters were studied by using the R2PI technique via the 6¹0 transition of the benzene molecule. Both dissociative electron transfer and dissociative proton transfer reactions were observed within the BEn clusters, where n = 2 and 3, respectively. Proton transfer reactions were observed following dissociative electron transfer reactions within the (BTn) clusters, where n = 4, to generate the protonated clusters (H+Tn).