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The Latino population of which English Language Learners (ELLs) is a subset, has demonstrated substantial growth in recent years (U.S Census Bureau, 2008), highlighting the need for normative information regarding their language skills. However, requisite to obtaining normative information is determining appropriate norming methods. The principal purpose of the present study was to ascertain appropriate norming procedures for the language variables: Mean Length of Utterance (MLU), Number of Different Words (NDW) and Words Per Minute (WPM) in English and Spanish narratives of Spanish-speaking ELLs. The issues were 1) whether age or grade norms should be used as an index of language development, 2) whether cross-sectional or longitudinal data should be utilized, and 3) whether the inclusion or exclusion of children with missing data or grade repeats affects the language measures. It was hypothesized that due to the syntactic and lexical differences that are present across languages, there would be a different developmental schedule of development for the language variables in the English and Spanish of ELLs. Participants were typically developing kindergarten to second grade Spanish speaking ELLs enrolled in transitional bilingual programs. A total of 605 children comprised the cross-sectional dataset and a total of 679 children were included in the longitudinal dataset. From these initial datasets, additional datasets were created to provide separate age and grade groups (for the cross-sectional and longitudinal datasets) as well as three different longitudinal datasets. Narratives in English and Spanish were elicited from each child using a story retell procedure. Analyses were carried out using Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA), Univariate Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance procedures. Results of both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses indicated that age and grade are comparable indices of time for studying MLU, NDW, and WPM. Results also indicated that longitudinal data is superior to cross-sectional data for examining the language variables and that including or excluding subjects with missing data or grade repeaters does not significantly affect MLU, NDW, and WPM scores. Additionally, results confirm the findings from the research literature that MLU, NDW, and WPM are valid variables for studying narrative development. / Communication Sciences

This thesis investigates factors influencing the reading difficulties of advanced learners of English as a foreign language. It proposes a new approach to reading research and pedagogy in which neuroscientific insights on human verbal and non-verbal cognition are incorporated into the theoretical conceptualisation. This thesis explores the neurosdentific literature for the purpose of identifying basic principles governing human perception, emotion and cognition. The mechanisms of learning and memory are also studied. It examines how the verbal systems of the brain interact with the non-verbal systems. Making use of neural perspectives, a critical review of historical and of current reading models is conducted. Attempts are made to provide alternative interpretations for the phenomena recognised in empirical studies based on observations of reading behaviours, on computer-based studies and on the introspective data of experts and of learners. This thesis reports two experiments which were designed to investigate the Ll and L2 reading processes through Think Aloud, Immediate Retrospection, Questionnaires and Interviews. The results indicate that advanced learners, despite their established reading ability in their native languages, often rely heavily on cognitive and studial styles of L2 reading which inhibit fluent and effective reading. Neural accounts are offered which suggest that the ineffective reading styles are due to weakness in the degree of neural developments. This thesis evaluates the reading sections of current and typical coursebooks according to neural-based criteria and concludes that learners are not being given the opportunities to develop the neural networks required in fluent and enjoyable reading. Finally suggestions are made for future reading research and pedagogy.

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<p> This mixed methods study examined the responses of four administrators and three English learner (EL) teachers in a rural Indiana school corporation to the mandates of the state's accountability system. In addition, the study investigated the performance of ELs from the participating school corporation on the state's standardized test, the Indiana Statewide Testing for Educational Progress Plus (ISTEP+). The constant comparative method was used to analyze interview data, and descriptive statistics were generated to analyze four years of student test scores. Findings indicate that school corporation personnel have implemented a number of programmatic and instructional changes in response to the state's accountability system. Results from both the qualitative and quantitative analyses elucidate the level of English proficiency required for ELs to pass the ISTEP+. This study provides a starting point for reassessing Indiana's EL achievement objectives.</p>