Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) primarily infects T helper (Th) cells. Decrease in the number of Th cells is the hallmark of HIV infection. Latent reservoirs of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are the leading barrier towards eradication of HIV infection. T Follicular helper (Tfh) cells are a subset of Th cells that function to provide aid to B cells for their maturation, affinity selection and antibody class switch. Several studies have shown that Tfh cells are a major reservoir of latent as well as productive hiv infection. But in contrast to the fate of other Th cell subsets, the frequency of Tfh cells was shown to have increased during HIV infection which could not be attributed to their reduced susceptibility to HIV infection. The hypothesis was that Tfh cells possess a unique metabolic phenotype that protects them from HIV induced cell death. Transcriptome analysis of Th subsets from human donors and showed that Tfh cells rely less on glycolysis for their energetic requirements and instead have increased transcription of fatty acid synthesis genes. This finding was corroborated by seahorse extracellular flux assay. The results shoId that glycolysis was not essential for Tfh cell differentiation in-vitro. The observed increase in Tfh cell frequency could not be attributed to increased Tfh differentiation upon HIV infection since HIV infection inhibited the differentiation of both non-Tfh and Tfh cells. The results found that bypassing the glycolytic pathway by providing Tfh cells with Galactose in the medium protected ex-vivo infected primary tonsillar cells from HIV induced cell death. This protection could be partly explained by the induction of Baculovirus IAP repeat containing 5 (BIRC5) when the cells utilized Galactose instead of Glucose. The studies together show that Tfh cells have an oxidative metabolic phenotype which protects them from HIV induced cell death in part by induction of BIRC5 expression.

Macrophages (MΦ) as specialized immune cells are involved in rubella virus (RuV) pathogenesis and enable the study of its interaction with the innate immune system. A similar replication kinetics of RuV in the two human MΦ types, the pro-inflammatory M1-like (or GM-MΦ) and anti-inflammatory M2-like (M-MΦ), was especially in M-MΦ accompanied by a reduction in the expression of the innate immune receptor CD14. Similar to RuV infection, exogenous interferon (IFN) β induced a loss of glycolytic reserve in M-MΦ, but in contrast to RuV no noticeable influence on CD14 expression was detected. We next tested the contribution of CD14 to the generation of cytokines/chemokines during RuV infection of M-MΦ through the application of anti-CD14 blocking antibodies. Blockage of CD14 prior to RuV infection enhanced generation of virus progeny. In agreement with this observation, the expression of IFNs was significantly reduced in comparison to the isotype control. Additionally, the expression of TNF-α was slightly reduced, whereas the chemokine CXCL10 was not altered. In conclusion, the observed downmodulation of CD14 during RuV infection of M-MΦ appears to contribute to virus-host-adaptation through a reduction of the IFN response.

Macrophages (MF) are known to exhibit distinct responses to viral and bacterial infection, but how they react when exposed to the pathogens in succession is less well understood. Accordingly, we determined the effect of a rubella virus (RV)-induced infection followed by an LPS-induced challenge on cytokine production, signal transduction and metabolic pathways in human GM (M1-like)- and M (M2-like)-MF. We found that infection of both subsets with RV resulted in a low TNF-a and a high interferon (IFN, type I and type III) release whereby M-MF produced far more IFNs than GM-MF. Thus, TNF-a production in contrast to IFN production is not a dominant feature of RV infection in these cells. Upon addition of LPS to RV-infected MF compared to the addition of LPS to the uninfected cells the TNF-a response only slightly increased, whereas the IFN-response of both subtypes was greatly enhanced. The subset specific cytokine expression pattern remained unchanged under these assay conditions. The priming effect of RV was also observed when replacing RV by IFN-b one putative priming stimulus induced by RV. Small amounts of IFN-b were sufficient for phosphorylation of Stat1 and to induce IFN-production in response to LPS. Analysis of signal transduction pathways activated by successive exposure of MF to RV and LPS revealed an increased phosphorylation of NFkB (MMF), but different to uninfected MF a reduced phosphorylation of ERK1/2 (both subtypes). Furthermore, metabolic pathways were affected; the LPS-induced increase in glycolysis was dampened in both subtypes after RV infection. In conclusion, we show that RV infection and exogenously added IFN-b can prime MF to produce high amounts of IFNs in response to LPS and that changes in glycolysis and signal transduction are associated with the priming effect. These findings will help to understand to what extent MF defense to viral infection is modulated by a following exposure to a bacterial infection.

No description available.

Background: Adipose-derived stem/stromal cells (ASCs) isolated from the stromal vascular fraction are a source of mesenchymal stem cells that have been shown to be beneficial in many regenerative medicine applications. ASCs are an attractive source of stem cells in particular, due to their lack of immunogenicity. This study examines differences between mitochondrial bioenergetic profiles of ASCs isolated from adipose tissue of five peri-organ regions: pericardial, thymic, knee, shoulder, and abdomen. Results: Flow cytometry showed that the majority of each ASC population isolated from the adipose tissue of 12 donors, with an n = 3 for each tissue type, were positive for MSC markers CD90, CD73, and CD105, and negative for hematopoietic markers CD34, CD11B, CD19, and CD45. Bioenergetic profiles were obtained for ASCs with an n = 4 for each tissue type and graphed together for comparison. Mitochondrial stress tests provided the following measurements: basal respiration rate (measured as oxygen consumption rate [pmol O-2/min], ATP production, proton leak, maximal respiration, respiratory control ratio, coupling efficiency, and non-mitochondrial respiration. Glycolytic stress tests provided the following measurements: basal glycolysis rate (measured as extracellular acidification rate [mpH/min]), glycolytic capacity, glycolytic reserve, and non-glycolytic acidification. Conclusions: The main goal of this manuscript was to provide baseline reference values for future experiments and to compare bioenergetic potentials of ASCs isolated from adipose tissue harvested from different anatomical locations. Through an investigation of mitochondrial respiration and glycolysis, it was demonstrated that bioenergetic profiles do not significantly differ by region due to depot-dependent and donor-dependent variability. Thus, although the physiological function, microenvironment and anatomical harvest site may directly affect the characteristics of ASCs isolated from different organ regions, the ultimate utility of ASCs remains independent of the anatomical harvest site.

Interferons (IFNs) are an essential part of innate immunity and contribute to adaptive immune responses. Here, we employed a loss-of-function analysis with human A549 respiratory epithelial cells with a knockout (KO) of the type I IFN receptor (IFNAR KO), either solely or together with the receptor of type III IFN (IFNAR/IFNLR1 KO). The course of rubella virus (RuV) infection on the IFNAR KO A549 cells was comparable to the control A549. However, on the IFNAR/IFNLR1 KO A549 cells, both genome replication and the synthesis of viral proteins were significantly enhanced. The generation of IFN β during RuV infection was influenced by type III IFN signaling. In contrast to IFNAR KO A549, extracellular IFN β was not detected on IFNAR/IFNLR1 KO A549. The bioenergetic profile of RuV-infected IFNAR/IFNLR1 KO A549 cells generated by extracellular flux analysis revealed a significant increase in glycolysis, whereas mitochondrial respiration was comparable between all three cell types. Moreover, the application of the glucose analogue 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG) significantly increased viral protein synthesis in control A549 cells, while no effect was noted on IFNAR/IFNLR KO A549. In conclusion, we identified a positive signaling circuit of type III IFN signaling on the generation of IFN β during RuV infection and an IFN signaling-dependent contribution of glycolysis to RuV infection. This study on epithelial A549 cells emphasizes the interaction between glycolysis and antiviral IFN signaling and notably, the antiviral activity of type III IFNs against RuV infection, especially in the absence of both type I and III IFN signaling, the RuV replication cycle was enhanced.

The mosquito-borne Usutu virus (USUV) is a zoonotic flavivirus and an emerging pathogen. So far therapeutical options or vaccines are not available in human and veterinary medicine. The bioenergetic profile based on extracellular flux analysis revealed an USUV infection-associated significant increase in basal and stressed glycolysis on Vero and with a tendency for basal glycolysis on the avian cell line TME-R derived from Eurasian blackbirds. On both cell lines this was accompanied by a significant drop in the metabolic potential of glycolysis. Moreover, glycolysis contributed to production of virus progeny, as inhibition of glycolysis with 2-deoxy-D-glucose reduced virus yield on Vero by one log10 step. Additionally, the increase in glycolysis observed on Vero cells after USUV infection was lost after the addition of exogenous type I interferon (IFN) b. To further explore the contribution of the IFN response pathway to the impact of USUV on cellular metabolism, USUV infection was characterized on human A549 respiratory cells with a knockout of the type I IFN receptor, either solely or together with the receptor of type III IFN. Notably, only the double knockout of types I and III IFN receptor increased permissiveness to USUV and supported viral replication together with an alteration of the glycolytic activity, namely an increase in basal glycolysis to an extent that a further increase after injection of metabolic stressors during extracellular flux analysis was not noted. This study provides evidence for glycolysis as a possible target for therapeutic intervention of USUV replication. Moreover, presented data highlight type I and type III IFN system as a determinant for human host cell permissiveness and for the infection-associated impact on glycolysis.

No description available.

Die zunehmende Ausbreitung des Usutu-Virus in Europa als Ursache für fatale Ausbruchsgeschehen innerhalb der Avifauna, insbesondere unter Sperlingsvögeln (Passeriformes) und Eulenartigen (Strigiformes), stellt in Zusammenhang mit einem neuroinvasiven sowie zoonotischen Potential ein Risiko für die Veterinär- sowie Humanmedizin dar. Trotz dieser Relevanz stehen derzeit keine zugelassenen Therapeutika gegen eine Usutu-Virus-Infektion zur Verfügung. Auf Basis indikationsfremder Substanzen mit pharmakologischer Zulassung im Sinne des drug repositioning sowie auf Grundlage der Gegenregulation viral-induzierter Modulationen des Zellmetabolismus wurde die Identifikation antiviraler Therapieoptionen gegen das Usutu-Virus in vitro angestrebt.:Abkürzungsverzeichnis Abbildungsverzeichnis Tabellenverzeichnis 1 Einleitung 2 Literaturübersicht 2.1 Das Usutu-Virus 2.1.1 Ursprung, Klassifikation und Epidemiologie 2.1.1 Transmissionszyklus und Wirtstropismus 2.1.2 Aufbau des Virions und des Genoms 2.1.3 Veterinärmedizinische Relevanz und pathologische Ausprägung 2.1.4 Humanmedizinische Bedeutung als Zoonose-Erreger 2.1.5 Vergleichende Aspekte zum West-Nil-Virus 2.2 Antivirale Präventions- und Therapieoptionen 2.2.1 Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Immunprophylaxe 2.2.2 Pharmaka mit potentiell antiviraler Wirkung gegen Flaviviren 2.2.3 Identifizierte Substanzen gegen das Usutu-Virus 2.3 Zelluläre Systeme als antivirale Zielobjekte 2.3.1 Das Interferon-System und seine antivirale Schutzfunktion 2.3.2 Viral-induzierte Modulation des Wirtszellmetabolismus 3 Zielstellungen der Dissertation 4 Material 4.1 Zelllinien 4.2 Viruslinien 4.3 Zellkulturmedien 4.4 Pharmakologische und andere Substanzen 4.5 Chemikalien 4.6 Lösungen und Puffer 4.7 Antikörper 4.8 Reagenzien und Kit-Systeme 4.9 Enzyme und Nukleotide 4.10 Primer 4.11 Verbrauchsmaterialen 4.12 Geräte 4.13 Datenbanken und Software 5 Methodik 5.1 Zellkultivierungstechnik und PBMC-Isolation 5.2 Isolation von Usutu-Virus-Linien aus Gewebeproben in Zellkultur 5.2.1 Aufbereitung aviären Organmaterials 5.2.2 Typisierung von in Deutschland zirkulierenden Usutu-Virus-Linien (2019, 2020) 5.2.3 Virusanzucht in verschiedenen Zellkulturen zur Virusstock-Generierung 5.3 Quantifizierung des extrazellulären Virustiters 5.4 Immunfluoreszenzanalyse 5.5 Präparation pharmakologischer und anderer Substanzen 5.6 Infektionsansätze mit dem Usutu-Virus und WNV 5.7 Durchflusszytometrische Analyse 5.8 Zytotoxizitätsstudien 5.9 Extrazelluläre Fluxanalyse mittels Agilent Seahorse XF-Technologie 5.10 Statistische Analyse 6 Ergebnisse 6.1 Isolation des Usutu-Virus in Zellkultur 6.2 Replikationsdynamik des Usutu-Virus in verschiedenen Zelllinien 6.3 Pharmakologisches Screening zur antiviralen Wirksamkeit gegen das Usutu-Virus 6.4 Identifikation und Charakterisierung der antiviralen Eigenschaften von Ivermectin 6.5 Wirkung von Ivermectin gegen Linie 2 des West-Nil-Virus in einer aviären Zelllinie 6.6 Metabolischer Phänotyp Usutu-Virus-infizierter Zelllinien 6.7 Antivirale Inhibition der Glykolyse durch 2-Deoxy-D-Glukose 6.8 Einfluss von exogenem Interferon auf den Wirtszellmetabolismus unter Infektion 6.9 Auswirkung der Interferon-Rezeptor-Defizienz auf den Metabolismus unter Infektion 7 Diskussion 7.1 Typisierung und Isolation des Usutu-Virus in Zellkultur 7.2 Charakterisierung der zelltypspezifischen Permissivität und Replikationskinetik 7.3 Identifikation antiviral wirksamer Substanzen gegen das Usutu-Virus 7.4 Usutu-Virus-induzierte Modulation des Metabolismus als antiviraler Ansatz 8 Ausblick 9 Zusammenfassung 10 Summary 11 Literaturverzeichnis 12 Anhang 12.1 Zusatzmaterial 12.2 Publikation 1 12.3 Publikation 2 12.4 Publikation 3 12.5 Weitere Veröffentlichungen 13 Danksagung / The emerge of Usutu virus (USUV) in Europe as a causative agent of fatal outbreaks in avifauna, notably in Passeriformes and Strigiformes, as well as its neuroinvasive and zoonotic potential emphasize a considerable risk in veterinary and human medicine. Despite its relevance, recently, no approved drugs against USUV infections are available. The identification of antiviral therapeutic options against USUV in vitro was addressed based on the analysis of approved drugs of other medical indications in terms of drug repositioning and the counteraction of viral-induced alterations of the cellular metabolism.:Abkürzungsverzeichnis Abbildungsverzeichnis Tabellenverzeichnis 1 Einleitung 2 Literaturübersicht 2.1 Das Usutu-Virus 2.1.1 Ursprung, Klassifikation und Epidemiologie 2.1.1 Transmissionszyklus und Wirtstropismus 2.1.2 Aufbau des Virions und des Genoms 2.1.3 Veterinärmedizinische Relevanz und pathologische Ausprägung 2.1.4 Humanmedizinische Bedeutung als Zoonose-Erreger 2.1.5 Vergleichende Aspekte zum West-Nil-Virus 2.2 Antivirale Präventions- und Therapieoptionen 2.2.1 Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Immunprophylaxe 2.2.2 Pharmaka mit potentiell antiviraler Wirkung gegen Flaviviren 2.2.3 Identifizierte Substanzen gegen das Usutu-Virus 2.3 Zelluläre Systeme als antivirale Zielobjekte 2.3.1 Das Interferon-System und seine antivirale Schutzfunktion 2.3.2 Viral-induzierte Modulation des Wirtszellmetabolismus 3 Zielstellungen der Dissertation 4 Material 4.1 Zelllinien 4.2 Viruslinien 4.3 Zellkulturmedien 4.4 Pharmakologische und andere Substanzen 4.5 Chemikalien 4.6 Lösungen und Puffer 4.7 Antikörper 4.8 Reagenzien und Kit-Systeme 4.9 Enzyme und Nukleotide 4.10 Primer 4.11 Verbrauchsmaterialen 4.12 Geräte 4.13 Datenbanken und Software 5 Methodik 5.1 Zellkultivierungstechnik und PBMC-Isolation 5.2 Isolation von Usutu-Virus-Linien aus Gewebeproben in Zellkultur 5.2.1 Aufbereitung aviären Organmaterials 5.2.2 Typisierung von in Deutschland zirkulierenden Usutu-Virus-Linien (2019, 2020) 5.2.3 Virusanzucht in verschiedenen Zellkulturen zur Virusstock-Generierung 5.3 Quantifizierung des extrazellulären Virustiters 5.4 Immunfluoreszenzanalyse 5.5 Präparation pharmakologischer und anderer Substanzen 5.6 Infektionsansätze mit dem Usutu-Virus und WNV 5.7 Durchflusszytometrische Analyse 5.8 Zytotoxizitätsstudien 5.9 Extrazelluläre Fluxanalyse mittels Agilent Seahorse XF-Technologie 5.10 Statistische Analyse 6 Ergebnisse 6.1 Isolation des Usutu-Virus in Zellkultur 6.2 Replikationsdynamik des Usutu-Virus in verschiedenen Zelllinien 6.3 Pharmakologisches Screening zur antiviralen Wirksamkeit gegen das Usutu-Virus 6.4 Identifikation und Charakterisierung der antiviralen Eigenschaften von Ivermectin 6.5 Wirkung von Ivermectin gegen Linie 2 des West-Nil-Virus in einer aviären Zelllinie 6.6 Metabolischer Phänotyp Usutu-Virus-infizierter Zelllinien 6.7 Antivirale Inhibition der Glykolyse durch 2-Deoxy-D-Glukose 6.8 Einfluss von exogenem Interferon auf den Wirtszellmetabolismus unter Infektion 6.9 Auswirkung der Interferon-Rezeptor-Defizienz auf den Metabolismus unter Infektion 7 Diskussion 7.1 Typisierung und Isolation des Usutu-Virus in Zellkultur 7.2 Charakterisierung der zelltypspezifischen Permissivität und Replikationskinetik 7.3 Identifikation antiviral wirksamer Substanzen gegen das Usutu-Virus 7.4 Usutu-Virus-induzierte Modulation des Metabolismus als antiviraler Ansatz 8 Ausblick 9 Zusammenfassung 10 Summary 11 Literaturverzeichnis 12 Anhang 12.1 Zusatzmaterial 12.2 Publikation 1 12.3 Publikation 2 12.4 Publikation 3 12.5 Weitere Veröffentlichungen 13 Danksagung