Puisque l'institution judiciaire dans les sociétés démocratiques est le garant des droits et libertés des individus, cette institution doit disposer tous les atouts qui lui garantissent de jouer ce rôle. La Mauritanie a connu à l'époque moderne l’instauration de ce pouvoir judiciaire, durant deux étapes importante, la première sous le contrôle du colonialisme français, qui a soumis le pays depuis plusieurs décennies, et la dernière après l’indépendance où la codification de la première organisation judiciaire en Mauritanie en date du 27 juin, 1961 avec la loi N° 61-012. En Mauritanie la justice dans son ensemble souffre de certain de maux, et l’accès à la justice pour l’ensemble des citoyens est entravé par beaucoup d’obstacles, et menacé par un certain nombre des insuffisances, et de nos jours, le droit à un procès équitable est un droit primordial, garanti par un ensemble de principes issus des conventions internationales dans le domaine de protection de droit de l’Homme. Le droit à un procès équitable est donc parmi des droits fondamentaux de l'être humain .il y a un certain nombre de conditions qui doivent être remplies pour assurer un procès équitable afin de protéger les droits des personnes. Afin de mettre en évidence et de clarifier les obstacles observés sur ces aspects, cette étude passe en revue l’organisation de la justice au pays, ainsi qu’une analyse des lieux des faille, tant sur le plan des empêchements issus des raisons socioéconomiques et organisationnelle, que celui de la non-conformité aux exigences internationales en la matière. Cette étude a présenté un ensemble de propositions, soient la révision de nos textes afin d’introduire davantage une manière plus efficace de ces principes, en particulier le principe de la collégialité, la publicité, et les droit des défenses. En renforçant les compétences du juge unique au niveau des tribunaux de première instance. Sans oublier d'assurer une plus grande spécialisation des magistrats tant au niveau des tribunaux des premières instances qu’au niveau de la cours d'appel. Toutes ces propositions ont pour but d’essayer d‘améliorer la situation actuelle, pour faire en sorte qu’il ait au moins l’existence de conditions minimales pour un procès équitable, car la violation du droit à un procès équitable, reste toujours une cause de préoccupation pour toute l’humanité. / As the judicial institution in democratic societies is the guarantor of the rights and freedoms of individuals, such institution must have all the means that allow it to play this role. Mauritania has known in its modern history the establishment of the judicial power, through two important steps. First was in the French colonialism, which has ruled the country for several decades, and the last was after independence with the codification of the first judicial organization in Mauritania on June 27, 1961 by Law No. 61-012. In Mauritania, justice had as a whole suffered from several problems and access to justice for all citizens is hindered by many obstacles, and threatened by a number of shortcomings. Today, the right to a fair trial is a primary right, guaranteed by a set of principles derived from international conventions as a part of human rights. The right to a fair trial is recognized as the fundamental among the human being rights but there are some conditions that must be met to ensure a fair trial in order to protect the rights of individuals. In order to highlight and clarify the obstacles observed in these aspects, this study reviews the organization of justice in the country, as well as it tries to provide an analysis of the places of the deficiencies as well as the impediments causing by socioeconomic reasons and organization and also the non-compliance with the international requirement in this area. This study gives some proposals, through the revision of the texts by introducing more strongly some principles. in particular the principle of collegiality, and the right of defense and by strengthening the prerogatives of the unique judge in the first instance courts and also in providing more specialization of the magistrates as well at the courts of the first instances as at the level of the appeal court. All these proposals aim to improve the current situation, for setting up the minimal conditions for a fair trial, because the violation of the right to a fair trial remains great concern for all humanity.

Fair Value Accounting is becoming increasingly more prominent, and auditing such measurements is at times difficult as a great deal of estimates and judgments are involved. This makes auditors jobs more challenging. Research has found that there is a need for understanding how auditing standards affect the audit process. Furthermore, some studies have shown that there is a gap between auditors and inspectors view of what constitutes sufficient and appropriate audit evidence regarding fair value measurements, the “FVM gap”. The aim of this study is to provide new insight on how auditing standards and inspectors affect the judgment of auditors in regards to fair value measurements. This study contributes to audit standard setters by illuminating how current auditing standards affect auditor judgment when auditing fair value measurements. It also contributes knowledge on how inspections affect judgment in the auditing process. Finally, it provides insight to practitioners on how box-checking and similar tools affect auditor judgment. We performed semi-structured interviews with respondents who have considerable experience of fair value measurements. The empirical data was thematically analysed and related to theories on judgment and decision-making as well as structure versus judgment research. A number of interesting findings were made; auditing standards seem to be well adjusted to auditors’ needs, documentation is one of the major issues when dealing with fair value measurements and the toughness of inspections between countries seem to differ. Some potential topics for future research were identified: whether or not a gap of interpretations exists between auditors and the lawyers of inspecting entities, and what effects such a gap could have; if the documentation of both audit clients and auditors needs to be improved upon. More potential areas for future research can be found in the Conclusion.

Die sog. FAIR-Prinzipien haben sich mittlerweile als Standard-Anforderung im Forschungsdatenmanagement etabliert. In Förderanträgen und -berichten müssen Wissenschaftler:innen darlegen, wie sie Forschungsdaten gemäß den FAIR-Prinzipien verwalten und veröffentlichen. Auch immer mehr Fachzeitschriften bzw. Verlage fordern von ihren Autor:innen, dass sie ihre Forschungsdaten gemäß den FAIR-Prinzipien teilen, um die Reproduzierbarkeit und Überprüfbarkeit ihrer Ergebnisse zu gewährleisten. Was das Akronym FAIR eigentlich bedeutet und worauf Forschende in diesem Zusammenhang achten sollten, fasst dieser Beitrag kurz zusammen.

This study explores the problem of "fair use" in copyright as it applies to the use of POD's, print-on-demand systems, by education and business entities. This qualitative research instrument offers an explanation for the discrepancy between current copyright statutes and the application of these statutes by the US Courts toward regulating the "fair use" doctrine as it applies to POD technology. This synthesis examines the "gray areas" of the US Copyright Act of 1976 and the Copyright Amendments Act of 1992 in conjunction with the ever-changing legal opinions that continuously shape and mold court opinions into copyright ideals. In order to achieve this goal, the following criteria is discussed: 1) the nights of copyright owners; 2) limitations of exclusivity in copyright; 3) judicial and statutory factors in "fair use"; 4) court rulings that affect the common educational and business use of copyright protected materials; and 5) the affect of copyright rulings upon the use of high technology equipment that is presently in use or will be introduced into the market place soon. In effect, this study responds to the copyright dilemma as it pertains to "fair use" upon POD's, digital high speed copy systems, computers/laser printers, video taping systems, audio taping systems, live presentations, transmitted presentations, and other information systems. The following questions will be considered and discussed: 1) What is the history and intent of the fair use doctrine as it applies to the Copyright Act of 1976 and Copyright Amendment Act of 1992; 2) What is the affect of present copyright laws upon POD's; 3) Has court litigation in the last decade restricted the "fair use” doctrine by limiting the uses of copyrighted materials by educational and business entities? Finally and most importantly, in the interest of preserving, improving, and perfecting the relationship between POD users, in both education and business, and the international copyright proprietors, including members of AAP and SPA, this dissertation has explored and developed a copyright user's and owner's "Model of Rights". / Ph. D.

Idag ställs krav på museer i Sverige och världen att museisamlingar ska digitaliseras och tillgängliggöras. Denna undersökning förklarar hur tre museer ser på digitalisering och hur de arbetar för att tillgängliggöra sina samlingar med FAIR-principerna som utgångspunkt. I undersökningen intervjuas Gotlands museum, Sörmlands museum och Historiska museet i Stockholm. Resultaten visar på att den digitala kompetensen som museer besitter behöver förbättras för att digitalisering av samlingarna ska utvecklas. Museer arbetar i olika taktberoende på resurser men undersökningen visar att tillgängliggörande av museisamlingar fortgår. Det visar även att museer använder olika tjänster och samlingssystem för att digitalisera och tillgängliggöra samlingarna, bland annat DigitaltMuseum, Webbplats eller Sök i samlingarna. Till sist visar det att vid digitalisering förekommer utmaningar respektive risker. / Today, all museums in Sweden and the world are required to digitize and make their museum collections accessible. This study explains how three museum view digitization and how they work to make their collectionsaccessible using the FAIR-principles as a starting point. In the study, Gotland’s museum, Sörmland’s museumand the history museum in Stockholm are interviewed. The results show that the digital competence possessed by museums needs to be improved for digitization of the collection to develop. Museums work at different pace depending on staff and time, but the study shows that making museum collections available is ongoing. It also shows that museums use different services and collection systems to digitize and make the collections available, that includes DigitalMuseum, website or Search in the collections. Finally, it shows that digitization involves challenges and risks.

The thesis "Purchasing tendency of consumers buying fair-trade products" examines aspects that influence consumer behaviour when buying fair-trade products. The thesis is based on a combination of two research methods - secondary data analysis and semi-structured interview. Secondary research uses data from a survey focused on the purchase, preferences and attitudes of fair-trade that was carried out by the Institute of evaluations and social analysis (INESAN). The quantitative part consist of two texts. The first part concentrates on finding aspects that can play a role in consumers' preference in purchasing fair-trade products. The second part concentrates on the purchase itself. It focuses on the extent to which consumers' purchase of fair- trade products is planned or impulsive. The qualitative part is based on quantitative analysis and focuses on established facts in detail. The thesis concludes that buying fair-trade products is influenced by social aspects, quality, price, availability and awareness of fair-trade products and the level of planning depends on the situation.

Law / LL.M.

Thesis (LLD (Public Law))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The guarantee of a fair trial is fundamental to the criminal process of every modern society. Like all civilised nations, Botswana’s legal order provides for the protection of accused persons through the guarantee of a fair trial. But equality of arms, a central feature of medieval trial by combat, seems to have disappeared from modern criminal procedural systems. The question arises, therefore, whether criminal justice systems sufficiently cater for the fair trial of accused persons. This thesis will argue that the present legal and institutional framework for the protection of fair trial rights in Botswana falls short of guaranteeing procedural equality and that this severely compromises fairness. The institutional framework does not support equality of arms and therefore leaves procedural rights in a basic state of application. The thesis, therefore, seeks to analyse the protection of fair trial rights in Botswana in light of the principle of equality of arms. The thesis explores the origins and theoretical foundations of the principle. It recognises that the present application of the principle occurs by implicit countenance. The absence of any constitutional recognition of the principle leaves procedural rights in a basic state of application. The thesis discusses the practical implications of an express recognition and constitutional application of the principle in the adversarial system. Equality of arms should be central in the criminal process and no party should have an unfair advantage over the other. The thesis recognises that the prosecution is in a position of advantage in that it has the support of the state. This advantage manifests itself in the form of vast resources regarding expertise, investigatory powers and legislative powers. Disparities in resources, the ability to investigate and access to witnesses create an inequality of arms between the state and the accused. This can only be balanced and countered by empowering the accused with constitutional and procedural rights that specifically protect the accused in the face of the might of the state. These procedural rights include the presumption of innocence, the right to legal representation and the right to disclosure. It is argued, however, that though accused-based rights and constitutional rules of procedure generally protect the accused and ensure that the process is fair, they mainly remain theoretical declarations if they are not applied in line with equality of arms. In other words, the meaningful enjoyment of these rights by the accused, demands the strengthening of resources and legislative and institutional governance. Fairness in criminal trials is epitomised in the balance between the overwhelming resources of the state and the constitutional protection of the accused. Otherwise, the constitutional protection afforded to the accused is compromised. The first part engages the reader with the development of accused-based rights and introduces the constitutionalisation of procedural rights in Botswana. It discusses the scope and application of the principle of equality of arms, develops its relevance to the adversarial system and justifies an application of the principle in Botswana domestic law. It makes a comparison between the adversarial and inquisitorial models while recognising the growing tendency towards convergence. It highlights the adversarial system as interest-based, and recognises the indispensability of the principle of equality of arms to such a system. While recognising that inquisitorial procedures often offend equality of arms, the role of the inquisitorial system in ensuring equality of arms is also recognised. It measures and analyses the normative value, application and recognition of equality of arms in Botswana’s legal system, arguing for express recognition and a conceptual application of the principle by the courts. It is reasoned that express recognition of the principle will result in fuller protection and better realisation of accused-based rights. Exploring the adversarial-inquisitorial dichotomy, it recognises the need for convergence, but emphasises the principle of equality of arms and the right to adversarial proceedings as the foundation for fair trials. The second part analyses the investigation process and generally bemoans the great inequalities at this stage of the criminal process. It discusses procedural and evidential rules that serve to minimise the imbalances and the role that exclusionary rules play in ensuring fair trials and reliable verdicts. The third part identifies specific trial rights which are relevant to the principle of equality of arms. Central to the discussion are the right to legal representation and the presumption of innocence which are discussed in chapters 7 and 8 respectively. These two important rights are central to the protection of the accused but unfortunately are the most compromised due to lack of resources and legislative intervention. Chapter 9 deals with other rights that are relevant to the principle as well as the ability of the accused to present his case and effectively defend himself. It emphasises the need for the courts to engage in the trial, thereby enabling the unrepresented accused. The fourth part contains final conclusions which argue that the principle of equality of arms forms the basis for the full realisation of individual procedural rights and advocates for the recognition of the principle in the Botswana legal order. It is concluded that the constitutional enshrinement of fair trial rights and their basic application by the courts, without actual measures to ensure their realisation, are insufficient. Suggestions include legislative and institutional reforms, as well as a constitutional recognition of the principle of equality of arms. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die waarborg van ‘n billike verhoor is fundamenteel tot die strafprosesregstelsel van elke beskaafde gemeenskap. Soos in ander beskaafde lande, word die beskuldige in Botswana ook beskerm deur die reg op ‘n billike verhoor. In die Middeleeue was gelykheid van wapens (“equality of arms”) die sentrale kenmerk van die tweegeveg as geskilberegtigingsmetode. Dit blyk egter dat hierdie sentrale kenmerk afwesig is in moderne strafprosesregstelsels is. Die vraag ontstaan of hierdie toedrag van sake ‘n beskuldige se reg op ‘n billike verhoor op risiko plaas. In hierdie tesis word betoog dat die posisie in Botswana van so ‘n aard is dat “ongelyke bewapening” veroorsaak dat die reg op ‘n billike verhoor belemmer word. Die plaaslike institusionele bedeling onderskraag nie die beskerming van gelykheid van wapens nie en veroorsaak derhalwe dat prosessuele regte in “a basic state of application” is, met ander woorde, op ‘n eenvoudige en meganiese toepassingvlak is. Met die norm van gelyke bewapening as vertrekpunt, ondersoek hierdie tesis die beskerming van die reg op ‘n billike verhoor in Botswana. ‘n Ondersoek word geloods na die oorsprong en toereriese basis van die beginsel van gelyke bewapening. Die afwesigheid van uitdrukklike grondwetlike erkenning van die beginsel, word vergelyk met die praktiese implikasies en uitdruklike grondwetlike erkenning en toepassing in ‘n adversatiewe stelsel. Gelykheid van wapens behoort sentraal tot die strafproses te wees en geen party behoor ‘n onbillike voordeel bo die ander te geniet nie. In hierdie tesis word erken dat die vervolging bloot vanweë die feit dat dit deur die staatsmasjienerie ondersteun word, wesenlik bevoordeel word bo die individu as aangeklaagde. Dit gaan hier om toegang tot hulpbronne soos deskundigheid, asook die rol wat misdaadondersoekmagte en ander wetgewing speel. Ongelykhede byvoorbeeld in hulpbronne, in die vermoë om misdaad te ondersoek en in die toegang tot getuies, dra alles daartoe by dat ‘n wanbalans tussen die staat en die individu ontstaan. Die verlening van prosessuele regte aan die beskuldigde is ‘n metode om die balans te probeer herstel. Voorbeelde van sulke regte is die reg om onskuldig vermoed te wees, die reg op ‘n regsverteenwoordiger en die reg op insae in verklarings. In hierdie tesis word egter betoog dat alhoewel hierdie regte en ander grondwetlike strafprosedures die beskuldigde kan beskerm en die billikheid van die proses kan bevorder, dit absoluut noodsaaklik is dat voormelde regte en prosedures in lyn met die beginsel van gelykheid van wapens geïnterpreteer en toegepas moet word. Betekenisvolle afdwinging en toepassing van ‘n beskuldigde se regte verg versterking van bronne en die institusionele bedeling. Billikheid in die strafverhoor word gekenmerk aan die graad van balans wat bereik kan word tussen die oorvloedige hulpbronne van die staat teenoor die grondwetlike beskerming van die beskuldigde. In die afwesigheid van ‘n balans, word die beskuldigde benadeel. Die eerste gedeelte van hierdie tesis behandel die ontwikkeling van die beskuldigde se regte en bevat ‘n inleiding tot die konstitusionalisering van prossuele regte in Botswana. In Deel Een word die omvang en toepassing van die beginsel van gelykheid van wapens bespreek en word die relevantheid van hierdie beginsel in die adversatiewe proses identifiseer, veral wat Botswana betref. Die adversatiewe en inkwisitoriese modelle word vergelyk en bespreek met erkenning aan die moderne neiging dat die twee modelle besig is om in een te vloei – die sogenaamde verskynsel van “convergence”. Daar word aangetoon dat gelykheid van wapens die adversatiewe model onderlê. Hierteenoor is dit so dat die inkwisitoriese model ook erkenning aan gelykheid van wapens verleen. Daar word betoog dat gelykheid van wapens ‘n normatiewe waarde het en uitdruklik in Botswana deur die howe erken moet word. Uitdruklike erkenning sal tot groter beskerming en realisering van ‘n beskuldigde se regte lei. In Deel Een word ook tot die slotsom geraak dat alhoewel daar ‘n behoefte aan “convergence” is, dit onvermydelik tog ook so is dat gelykheid van wapens en die reg op ‘n adversatiewe proses die grondslag van ‘n billike verhoor vorm. In Deel Twee word die misdaadondersoekproses ontleed en word die grootskaalse ongelykhede wat hier onstaan en bestaan, bespreek. Daar word gelet op prosesregtelike en bewysregtelike reëls wat hierdie ongelykhede kan minimaliseer. Die rol van uitsluitingsreëls ter bevordering van ‘n billike verhoor en ‘n betroubare bevinding, word ook aangespreek. Deel Drie identifiseer spesifieke verhoorregte wat in ‘n besondere direkte verband met die beginsel van gelykheid van wapens staan. Hier is veral twee regte van besondere belang: die reg op ‘n regsverteenwoordiger (hoofstuk 7) en die reg om onskukdig vermoed te wees (hoofstuk 8). Ongelukkig is dit so dat hierdie twee regte erg ondermyn word. Die reg op resverteenwoordiging word ingekort deur ‘n gebrek aan finansiële bronne terwyl die vermoede van onskuld deur wetgewing ondergrawe word. In hoofstuk 9 word ander relevante regte bespreek en word die noodsaak van ‘n aktiewe hof in die geval van ‘n onverteenwoordigde beskuldigde bepleit Deel Vier bevat finale gevolgtrekkings. Daar word betoog dat die beginsel van gelykheid van wapens die basis vorm in die volle relisering van individuele regte en, verder, dat hierdie beginsel ten volle in die regstelsel van Botswana erken behoort te word. Blote grondwetlike verskansing van die grondwetlike reg op ‘n billike verhoor en ‘n blote basiese interpretasie daarvan deur die howe, is onvoldoende wanneer daar geen maatreels is om die haalbare realisering af te dwing nie. Wetgewende en institusionele hervorming is nodig, asook ‘n grondwetlike erkenning van die beginsel van gelykheid van wapens. / Research funds made available by Prof. S. E. van der Merwe

<p>Tobacco kills 11,500 of its consumers every day, half of them living in developing countries. But there’s more to the picture, namely the producer perspective which show the consequences of tobacco growing for the small-scale farmer. In this paper I mean to investigate the labour conditions of tobacco growers in the world’s second largest tobacco producing country, Brazil. I also intend to examine the Fair Trade movement, with particular attention to FLO (Fairtrade Labelling Organisation). Finally I try to merge the difficulties of tobacco growing with the institution of Fair Trade, expressed by the FLO standards, as an alternative way out of the tobacco growing problems. The method for this investigation is to examine and compare secondary literature, reports and books, already written on the subject.</p><p>The first issue show a double-side situation, where Brazilian tobacco growers live under extremely crude labour conditions, but also a state where no other agricultural alternatives are available, since tobacco is a highly lucrative and beneficial crop to cultivate, especially for the small-scale farmer. Secondly this paper proposes, thorough the laws of institutional theory, that Fair Trade, especially the FLO standards, constitutes a highly stable and reliable institution, clearly benefiting international trade. Finally this paper concludes that Fairtrade labelled tobacco would not only reduce the problems of tobacco growing, but would also simplify the problematic transformation process, caused by tougher tobacco control policies, from tobacco growing to alternative crop cultivation. In addition, my paper states that Fair Trade as an institution could spread egalitarian principles to other parts of society, which in turn will create formal egalitarian institutions. However, as my interviews with FLO and tobacco companies show, all of this will not become a reality until there is a significant increase in the demand for Fairtrade labelled tobacco products.</p>

- The Principle of Fair Business Transactions The submitted thesis called The Principle of Fair Business Transactions deals with assessment of impacts of private law's recodification on this principle and the issue of its application. The thesis consists of two main parts - theoretical and analytical. The theoretical part is divided into general and specific. The general theoretical part focuses on the specification of the business principle and its emplacement among other similar private law's principles such as principle of good faith and fair dealing and good manners. The aim of this part was to define divergences of each of the principles and the aftermaths of breaking these principles. It is impossible to go through the topic of the principle of fair business transactions globally, especially due to the extensiveness and variety of usage of the principle in business law relationships. Therefore, special attention has been paid to the principle of fair business transactions in the field of contractual penalty in the next theoretical part. In the analytical part, I endeavour to deal with the issue of the exercising of the right of a contractual penalty. In the first part, there is a short discourse on the contractual penalty itself, definition of an inadequate amount of the contractual penalty...