Un procédé enzymatique sans solvant a été développé permettant la synthèse d'un ester phénolique de DHA. L'optimisation des paramètres réactionnels a permis d'atteindre des rendements élevés (440 g/L) d'ester de DHA et d'alcool vanillique (DHA-VE), dont les activités biologiques et le potentiel applicatif ont été évalués. L'activité inhibitrice du DHA-VE vis-à-vis des radicaux ABTS, DPPH et hydroxyle a été démontrée. Un effet neuroprotecteur de l'ester a également été mis en évidence sur des neurones primaires de rat, exposés aux oligomères du peptide [bêta]-amyloïde. Une étude in vivo a permis de montrer que le greffage d'alcool vanillique conduit à une augmentation du taux de DHA au niveau des globules rouges et des neurones, indiquant une biodisponibilité accrue du DHA lorsque celui-ci est couplé au composé phénolique. Aucune toxicité visible de l'ester n'a été constatée. Par ailleurs, l'incorporation de DHA-VE dans divers systèmes émulsionnés a permis d'accroître leur stabilité à l'oxydation, quelles que soient les conditions de stockage. Ceci montre le potentiel de cet ester pour enrichir diverses matrices alimentaires en DHA, tout en améliorant leur stabilité à l'oxydation. Le procédé enzymatique développé a été appliqué à de l'huile de saumon, utilisée comme source d'acides gras polyinsaturés de la série oméga-3. L'incorporation totale de l’alcool vanillique (50 g/L) a été obtenue après 24 h de réaction, conduisant à la production d'une grande variété d'esters, représentatifs de la composition initiale de l'huile en acides gras. Le milieu réactionnel brut issu de l'alcoolyse de l'huile présente une grande stabilité et des propriétés antioxydantes importantes par rapport à l'huile de saumon native. En conclusion, l'approche consistant à assembler des composés phénoliques et des lipides polyinsaturés au sein d'une même structure semble prometteuse pour renforcer le potentiel applicatif de ces deux familles de biomolécules et produire de nouveaux ingrédients bioactifs stables / An efficient solvent-free bioprocess was developed for the synthesis of DHA phenolic ester, using the lipase B from Candida antarctica. The protocol developed here led to high-level production (440 g/L) of DHA vanillyl ester (DHA-VE) that exhibits interesting application potential as food ingredient. DHA-VE was characterized by a high stability and a high radical scavenging activity towards DPPH, ABTS and hydroxyl radicals. Neuroprotective properties of DHA-VE were also demonstrated in rat primary neurons exposed to amyloid-[beta] oligomers. Enzymatic esterification of DHA with vanillyl alcohol (VA) led to increased DHA levels in erythrocytes and brain tissues of mice fed DHA-VE-supplemented diet comparing with DHA. No visible toxicity of the ester was found. Enrichment of emulsions with DHA-VE improved significantly their oxidative stability whatever the conditions of storage, showing the potential of DHA-VE to enrich various food matrices with DHA while protecting them against oxidation. The enzymatic process was applied to salmon oil as a source of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). The total conversion of VA (50 g/L) was achieved after 24 h of reaction, leading to the production of a wide variety of esters that mirror the initial composition of the oil. The crude reaction medium recovered from salmon oil alcoholysis exhibited a high stability together with high antioxidant properties in comparison with native salmon oil. In conclusion, the approach that consists in bringing phenolic compounds and PUFA-rich lipids together within a single structure is expected to provide stable bioactive ingredients that should broaden the scope of application of omega-3 PUFAs whose health benefits are increasingly sought

Einleitung: Der diätetische Einsatz von ω-3 Fettsäuren wird für viele Erkrankungen sowohl des Menschen als auch der Tiere mit positiven Effekten verbunden. Auch für Tumorerkrankungen wird, insbesondere bei einem niedrigen Gehalt an Vitamin E, eine positive Wirkung von ω-3 Fettsäuren postuliert. Die Aufnahme der ω-3 Fettsäuren beim Hund aus dem Futter sowie die Inkorporation in das Gewebe wird durch viele verschiedene Faktoren beeinflusst. Um den potenziellen therapeutischen Nutzen einer Supplementierung des Futters mit ω-3 Fettsäuren abschätzen zu können, ist es unerlässlich zu wissen, in welchem Ausmaß und in welcher Geschwindigkeit die Inkorporation der ω-3 Fettsäuren aus dem Futter beim Hund erfolgt. Gleichzeitig stellt sich die Frage nach einem geeigneten Indikator, um den Erfolg einer Supplementierung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren zu überprüfen. Zielstellung: In der vorliegenden Dissertation sollten deshalb die folgenden Fragestellungen untersucht werden: a) Kann ein ω-3 Fettsäuresupplement die Fettsäurezusammensetzung im Gewebe genauso effektiv verändern wie ein kommerzielles, ω-3 Fettsäure-reiches Futter? b) Wie gestaltet sich der zeitliche Verlauf der Inkorporation von diätetisch verabreichten ω-3 Fettsäuren in der Erythrozytenmembran (EM) und im Plasma? c) Können die im Plasma zu beobachtenden Veränderungen als Indikator für die Veränderungen in der EM dienen? Material & Methoden: 30 Beagle wurden in 3 Gruppen à 10 Tiere eingeteilt und für 12 Wochen unterschiedlich gefüttert. Die Kontrollgruppe (CONT) erhielt ein kommerzielles Futter, das wenig ω-3 Fettsäuren enthält, eine Versuchsgruppe bekam zusätzlich ein ω-3 Fettsäuren-Konzentrat (ADD) und die zweite Versuchsgruppe erhielt ein kommerzielles Futter mit einem hohen Anteil an ω-3 Fettsäuren (FO). Anschließend wurde ADD für weitere 4 Wochen wie CONT gefüttert. Die Fettsäurezusammensetzung der EM und des Plasmas wurde nach 0, 1, 2, 4, 8 und 12 Wochen und bei ADD zusätzlich auch nach 14 und 16 Wochen per Gaschromatografie analysiert. Der Vitamin E-Gehalt des Plasmas in ADD und CONT wurde per Hochleistungsflüssigkeitsdruckchromatografie bestimmt. Ergebnisse: In unserer Studie erwies sich der Zusatz eines ω-3 Fettsäure-Supplementes zu einem Grundfutter ohne EPA und DHA genau so effektiv wie eine komplette Futterumstellung auf ein kommerzielles ω-3 fettsäurereiches Futter. Dies ist insbesondere für die Therapie von Hunden, die ein Spezialfutter erhalten ein wichtiger Vorteil. Auch können Supplemente einfacher an den jeweiligen individuellen Bedarf angepasst und dosiert werden. Bereits nach einer Woche konnte bei ADD und FO ein signifikanter Anstieg der Gesamt ω-3 Fettsäuren, EPA, und DHA in der EM und im Plasma beobachtet werden. Innerhalb von zwei (ADD) bzw. vier (FO) Wochen war das Plateau des Anstieges der ω-3 Fettsäuren im Plasma erreicht, nach acht Wochen auch in der EM. Das Plateau für DHA wurde im Plasma nach zwei (FO) bzw. vier (ADD) Wochen erreicht, in der EM nach acht Wochen. Das Plateau für EPA wurde im Plasma nach zwei Wochen erreicht, in der EM nach zwei (ADD), bzw. vier (FO) Wochen. Nach der Umstellung von ADD auf CONT-Fütterung ging der Gehalt an EPA im Plasma innerhalb von zwei Wochen auf den Ausgangswert zurück. Der Gehalt an EPA in der EM und der Gehalt an DHA im Plasma und in der EM erreichte das Ausgangsniveau innerhalb der vier Wochen der Washoutperiode nicht wieder. Der Gehalt an Arachidonsäure (AA) und der gesamt ω-6 Fettsäuren in den EM und im Plasma in ADD und FO sank innerhalb des Versuchszeitraumes signifikant, jedoch war die Reduktion nach 12 Wochen noch nicht abgeschlossen. Die Vitamin E Konzentration in ADD und CONT im Plasma zeigte keine signifikanten Änderungen. Schlussfolgerungen: Auf Grund von möglichen individuellen Unterschieden im Fettsäuremuster sollte der Erfolg einer Supplementierung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren immer in Relation zum individuellen Ausgangswert bewertet werden. Unabhängig von der Art der Supplementierung ist ein signifikanter Anstieg von EPA, DHA und der gesamt ω-3 Fettsäuren innerhalb von einer Woche zu erwarten. Hierbei korreliert die Entwicklung im Plasma sehr gut mit der der EM. Die Reduktion von AA und der gesamt ω-6 Fettsäuren erfolgt dagegen über einen wesentlich längeren Zeitraum. Um diese beobachten zu können, ist die Analyse der EM zu bevorzugen.:Abkürzungsverzeichnis ..................................................................................... III 1. Einleitung ....................................................................................................... 1 2. Literatur .......................................................................................................... 3 2.1. Fettsäuren ................................................................................................... 3 2.1.1. Aufbau und Eigenschaften ....................................................................... 3 2.1.2. Vorkommen und Synthese ....................................................................... 4 2.1.3. Funktion der Fettsäuren im Körper .......................................................... 5 2.1.4. Rolle der ω-3 Fettsäuren bei entzündlichen Prozessen .......................... 6 2.2. Tumorerkrankungen .................................................................................... 7 2.2.1 Rolle der ω-3 Fettsäuren bei Tumorerkrankungen .................................... 8 2.3 Rolle der ω-3 Fettsäuren bei anderen Erkrankungen ................................. 12 2.4. Diätetische Versorgung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren ............................................... 12 2.4.1. Inkorporation der ω-3 Fettsäuren in das Gewebe ................................... 13 2.4.2. Indikatoren für den Fettsäurestatus des Organismus .............................. 15 2.5. Vitamin E ..................................................................................................... 16 2.5.1. Aufnahme in den Körper ........................................................................... 16 2.5.2. Funktion von Vitamin E ............................................................................. 17 2.5.3. Hypovitaminose E ..................................................................................... 18 2.5.4. Hypervitaminose E .................................................................................... 18 2.5.5. Supplementierung mit Vitamin E bei Erkrankungen .................................. 18 3. Fragestellungen ............................................................................................... 19 4. Publikationen .................................................................................................... 20 4.1. Publikation 1 .................................................................................................. 20 Stellungnahme zum Eigenanteil der Arbeit an der Publikation 1 .......................... 20 4.2. Publikation 2 .................................................................................................. 32 Stellungnahme zum Eigenanteil der Arbeit an der Publikation 2 .......................... 32 5. Diskussion ......................................................................................................... 43 5.1. Würdigung der Versuchsanstellung ................................................................ 43 5.2. Ausgangssituation ........................................................................................... 45 5.3. Inkorporation der ω-3 Fettsäuren .................................................................... 47 5.4. Auswirkungen auf ω-6 Fettsäuren ................................................................... 49 5.5. Nachteile einer Supplementierung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren ................................... 50 5.6. Effektivität des ω-3 Fettsäure-Additivs ............................................................ 51 5.7. Einsatz von ω-3 Fettsäuren bei Tumorpatienten ............................................. 54 5.8. Einfluss von Vitamin E ..................................................................................... 56 5.9. Indikatoren für den Erfolg einer Supplementierung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren .......... 58 5.10. Ausblick ......................................................................................................... 59 6. Schlussfolgerungen ............................................................................................ 60 7. Zusammenfassung ............................................................................................. 61 8. Summary ............................................................................................................ 63 9. Literaturverzeichnis ............................................................................................ 65 Danksagung ........................................................................................................... 83 / Introduction: Dietary supplementation with n-3 fatty acids is associated with positive effects on many diseases in humans and animals. A positive effect of n-3 fatty acids on cancer is discussed especially in combination with a low Vitamin E content. Bioavailability from food and incorporation of n-3 fatty acids into tissues is influenced by many different factors. In order to estimate the potential therapeutical use of n-3 fatty acid supplementation in dogs it is nessecary to know the extend and speed of the incorporation of dietary n-3 fatty acids into tissues. There is also need for a reliable indicator to monitor the success of n-3 fatty acid supplementation. Objective: We therefore sought to answer the following questions: a) Is a n-3 fatty acid additive as effective in changing tissue fatty acid profiles as a commercial n-3 fatty acid diet? b) How are n-3 fatty acids incorporated into erythrocyte membranes (EM) and plasma over time? c) Are plasma fatty acid profiles a suitable indicator for EM fatty acid profiles? Material & Methods: 30 Beagle dogs were divided into 3 groups with 10 dogs per group and fed different diets for 12 weeks. One group got a commercial diet with a low n-3 fatty acid content (CONT). One group got the CONT diet with an added n-3 fatty acid concentrate (ADD) and one group got a commercial diet rich in n-3 fatty acids. After the 12 week period ADD was fed an additional four weeks as CONT to observe washout effects. Fatty acid profiles of plasma and EM were analysed at week 0, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 12 and for ADD also at week 14 and 16 per gas chromatography. Vitamin E content was analysed in Plasma of ADD and CONT via high pressure liquid chromatography. Results: In our study the use of a n-3 fatty acid additive was as effective in changing tissue fatty acid profiles as a commercial diet rich in n-3 fatty acids. Especially for dogs already recieving specialized diets, this is an important advantage. Additives are also much easier to customise and dose according to individual needs. A significant increase of total n-3 fatty acids, EPA and DHA was seen in EM and in plasma after one week both in ADD and FO. For total n-3 fatty acids the plateau was reached in plasma after two (ADD) and four (FO) weeks and after eight weeks in EM. DHA reached its plateau in plasma after two (FO) and four (ADD) weeks and after eight weeks in EM. For EPA the plateau was reached after two weeks in plasma and in EM after two (ADD) and four (FO) weeks. During the washout period in ADD EPA reached its baseline levels after two weeks in plasma but not within four weeks in EM. Total n-3 fatty acids and DHA in both plasma and EM also did not return to baseline levels within the four weeks of the washout period. Arachidonic acid (AA) and total n-6 fatty acids were significantly reduced in both ADD and FO during the trial, but their decline was not completed within the 12 weeks of the trial period. Vitamin E content in ADD and CONT showed no significant changes. Conclusion: Due to possible individual differences in fatty acid profiles success of dietary n-3 fatty acid supplementation should always be measured in relation to individual fatty acid profiles before the start of dietary supplementation. Both the additive and the commercial n-3 fatty acid diet led to an increase in EPA, DHA and total n-3 fatty acids within one week. This could be seen clearly in both plasma and EM. Changes in EM also correlated well with changes in plasma. For AA and total n-6 Fatty acids it took much longer to decline. In order to monitor this decline analysis of EM should be preferred.:Abkürzungsverzeichnis ..................................................................................... III 1. Einleitung ....................................................................................................... 1 2. Literatur .......................................................................................................... 3 2.1. Fettsäuren ................................................................................................... 3 2.1.1. Aufbau und Eigenschaften ....................................................................... 3 2.1.2. Vorkommen und Synthese ....................................................................... 4 2.1.3. Funktion der Fettsäuren im Körper .......................................................... 5 2.1.4. Rolle der ω-3 Fettsäuren bei entzündlichen Prozessen .......................... 6 2.2. Tumorerkrankungen .................................................................................... 7 2.2.1 Rolle der ω-3 Fettsäuren bei Tumorerkrankungen .................................... 8 2.3 Rolle der ω-3 Fettsäuren bei anderen Erkrankungen ................................. 12 2.4. Diätetische Versorgung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren ............................................... 12 2.4.1. Inkorporation der ω-3 Fettsäuren in das Gewebe ................................... 13 2.4.2. Indikatoren für den Fettsäurestatus des Organismus .............................. 15 2.5. Vitamin E ..................................................................................................... 16 2.5.1. Aufnahme in den Körper ........................................................................... 16 2.5.2. Funktion von Vitamin E ............................................................................. 17 2.5.3. Hypovitaminose E ..................................................................................... 18 2.5.4. Hypervitaminose E .................................................................................... 18 2.5.5. Supplementierung mit Vitamin E bei Erkrankungen .................................. 18 3. Fragestellungen ............................................................................................... 19 4. Publikationen .................................................................................................... 20 4.1. Publikation 1 .................................................................................................. 20 Stellungnahme zum Eigenanteil der Arbeit an der Publikation 1 .......................... 20 4.2. Publikation 2 .................................................................................................. 32 Stellungnahme zum Eigenanteil der Arbeit an der Publikation 2 .......................... 32 5. Diskussion ......................................................................................................... 43 5.1. Würdigung der Versuchsanstellung ................................................................ 43 5.2. Ausgangssituation ........................................................................................... 45 5.3. Inkorporation der ω-3 Fettsäuren .................................................................... 47 5.4. Auswirkungen auf ω-6 Fettsäuren ................................................................... 49 5.5. Nachteile einer Supplementierung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren ................................... 50 5.6. Effektivität des ω-3 Fettsäure-Additivs ............................................................ 51 5.7. Einsatz von ω-3 Fettsäuren bei Tumorpatienten ............................................. 54 5.8. Einfluss von Vitamin E ..................................................................................... 56 5.9. Indikatoren für den Erfolg einer Supplementierung mit ω-3 Fettsäuren .......... 58 5.10. Ausblick ......................................................................................................... 59 6. Schlussfolgerungen ............................................................................................ 60 7. Zusammenfassung ............................................................................................. 61 8. Summary ............................................................................................................ 63 9. Literaturverzeichnis ............................................................................................ 65 Danksagung ........................................................................................................... 83

Impaired endothelial vasomotor function is a hallmark of many chronic disease states, including essential hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Loss of the homeostatic role of the endothelium in large conduit arteries can contribute to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular conditions in these vessels (e.g. stroke, atherosclerosis). A fundamental understanding of mechanisms controlling endothelial function in hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus is required for appropriate clinical strategies targeting the cardiovascular conditions associated with these diseases. The vast majority of basic science studies examining endothelial function in animal models of hypertension and type 2 diabetes have been conducted in males. Studying endothelial function in females is imperative for determining potential sex-specific mechanisms of dysfunction and thus appropriate therapeutic strategies. Thus the global purpose of this thesis is to identify and characterize the pathways controlling impaired vasomotor function in female animal models of two chronic disease states: hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Chapters 2 and 3 of this thesis examine sex differences in endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation (EDR) and vasocontraction (EDC) of aortic segments isolated from male and female spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), a model of essential hypertension, as the animals age between 16 and 30 wk old. All endothelial vasomotor data presented in the Abstract are peak responses to 10⁻⁵ M acetylcholine. Endothelial vasomotor impairment is represented by lower EDR or by higher EDC. These present data confirmed well-established findings from the literature that 16 wk old male SHR exhibit endothelial vasomotor impairments (EDR: 77±4 %; EDC: 76±7 %) compared to normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY; EDR: 89±6 %; EDC: 59±8 %; p<0.05) controls, and that this impairment worsens with ageing in 30 wk male SHR (EDR: 63±2 %; EDC: 91±3 %; p<0.05). The observation that EDR was reduced in 30 wk female SHR (EDR: 76±4 %) compared to 16 wk counterparts (EDR: 101±2 %; p<0.05), however, was novel and interesting, as there were previously no reports of vasomotor responses in female SHR older than 19 wk. Moreover, the blunted EDR response of 30 wk female SHR approached the level of impairment exhibited by 30 wk male SHR (but was still slightly greater in females; p<0.05). The limited sex difference of the EDR within 30 wk SHR (males –13 % vs. females; p<0.05) contrasted that of 16 wk SHR (males –24 % vs. females; p<0.05), when the robust and unimpaired relaxation displayed by females was much greater than the significantly blunted response of males. Interestingly, endothelium-dependent contractions in quiescent rings were moderate and similar between 16 wk (EDC: 50±4 %) and 30 wk female SHR (EDC: 59±7 %; p=N/S) as compared to the greater contractions of males that were exacerbated with ageing (see above; p<0.05 both sex and ageing comparison). A major role has been established for the cyclooxygenase (COX)-1-thromboxane A₂/prostaglandin (TP) receptor pathway in the impaired endothelial vasomotor function of male SHR. Indeed, a similar mechanism appears to be responsible for the dysfunction observed in 30 wk female SHR in this thesis since robust endothelial function was restored in these animals with both antagonism of TP receptor (EDR: 111±2 %; EDC: 7±2 %; p<0.05) and preferential inhibition of COX-1 (EDR: 112±3 %; EDC: –5±3 %; p<0.05). In contrast, preferential inhibition of COX-2 only partially tempered endothelial impairments of 30 wk female SHR (EDR: 99±5 %; EDC: 27±3 %; p<0.05), suggesting that, similar to ageing male SHR, this isoform makes at most a secondary contribution to the dysfunction in 30 wk female SHR. Collectively, these data indicate that ageing female SHR exhibit a mechanism of endothelial impairment that is similar to that of male SHR and that is largely COX-1- and TP receptor-dependent. Chapter 4 examines the ability of chronic dietary administration of the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3), to ameliorate endothelial vasomotor function in adult male SHR with established hypertension. The impaired endothelial function of aortic segments isolated from adult male SHR (EDR: 48±6 %) was not improved following 10–12 wk of DHA feeding (EDR: 45±5 %; p=N/S). This finding was unexpected since it has been shown in the literature that feeding other n-3 PUFAs improves vasomotor responses in younger SHR, in which hypertension and its associated consequences are still developing. This is the first report of the effects of n-3 PUFA on endothelial vasomotor responses in adult SHR with established hypertension. These data suggest that dietary DHA do not improve vasomotor function in adult SHR. Chapter 5 examines α₁ adrenergic contraction and EDR of aortic segments isolated from 14 wk old female Zucker diabetic fatty rats (ZDF), a genetic model of high fat diet-induced obesity and type 2 diabetes, and lean non-diabetic female Zucker Lean rats. Additionally, some ZDF received an 8 wk administration of anti-diabetic metformin drug therapy, aerobic exercise training, or a combination of the two. Maximal α₁ adrenergic contractions were over 2-fold higher in high fat-fed ZDF (1.69±0.16 g) compared to Lean (0.71±0.13 g; p<0.05). This elevation in ZDF was abolished by exercise training alone (1.02±0.17 g; p<0.05) but was not altered by metformin (1.56±0.19 g; p=N/S). In contrast to the severely impaired endothelial vasomotor function reported in male ZDF in the literature, robust EDR was observed in female ZDF (72±7 %) that was similar to Lean (75±6 %; p=N/S) and that was unaltered by exercise training (76±5 %; p=N/S) or metformin (76±6 %; p=N/S). These results indicate that enhanced α₁ adrenergic contraction is a mechanism of altered vasomotor function in female type 2 diabetic ZDF rats and that it could possibly be addressed by a chronic exercise training intervention. The main novelty of the thesis is the extension of the current understanding of endothelial vasomotor function to hypertensive and type 2 diabetic females. The knowledge gained from examining mechanisms involved in endothelial impairments in ageing hypertensive females and from testing the therapeutic potential of currently used anti-diabetic interventions in the type 2 diabetic female vasculature has interesting potential application. This basic scientific information could help direct clinical therapeutic strategies to target population-specific mechanisms of dysfunction. Understanding female sex-specific endothelial behaviour in patient populations is important for describing cardiovascular complications, defining mechanisms, and applying appropriate therapeutic targets. Findings from this thesis indicate a sex-dependence of the total divergence of endothelial function (e.g. female type 2 diabetic rats vs. male counterparts in the literature) and of the interaction of disease variables (e.g. age) and endothelial vasomotor responses.

Impaired endothelial vasomotor function is a hallmark of many chronic disease states, including essential hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Loss of the homeostatic role of the endothelium in large conduit arteries can contribute to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular conditions in these vessels (e.g. stroke, atherosclerosis). A fundamental understanding of mechanisms controlling endothelial function in hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus is required for appropriate clinical strategies targeting the cardiovascular conditions associated with these diseases. The vast majority of basic science studies examining endothelial function in animal models of hypertension and type 2 diabetes have been conducted in males. Studying endothelial function in females is imperative for determining potential sex-specific mechanisms of dysfunction and thus appropriate therapeutic strategies. Thus the global purpose of this thesis is to identify and characterize the pathways controlling impaired vasomotor function in female animal models of two chronic disease states: hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Chapters 2 and 3 of this thesis examine sex differences in endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation (EDR) and vasocontraction (EDC) of aortic segments isolated from male and female spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), a model of essential hypertension, as the animals age between 16 and 30 wk old. All endothelial vasomotor data presented in the Abstract are peak responses to 10⁻⁵ M acetylcholine. Endothelial vasomotor impairment is represented by lower EDR or by higher EDC. These present data confirmed well-established findings from the literature that 16 wk old male SHR exhibit endothelial vasomotor impairments (EDR: 77±4 %; EDC: 76±7 %) compared to normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY; EDR: 89±6 %; EDC: 59±8 %; p<0.05) controls, and that this impairment worsens with ageing in 30 wk male SHR (EDR: 63±2 %; EDC: 91±3 %; p<0.05). The observation that EDR was reduced in 30 wk female SHR (EDR: 76±4 %) compared to 16 wk counterparts (EDR: 101±2 %; p<0.05), however, was novel and interesting, as there were previously no reports of vasomotor responses in female SHR older than 19 wk. Moreover, the blunted EDR response of 30 wk female SHR approached the level of impairment exhibited by 30 wk male SHR (but was still slightly greater in females; p<0.05). The limited sex difference of the EDR within 30 wk SHR (males –13 % vs. females; p<0.05) contrasted that of 16 wk SHR (males –24 % vs. females; p<0.05), when the robust and unimpaired relaxation displayed by females was much greater than the significantly blunted response of males. Interestingly, endothelium-dependent contractions in quiescent rings were moderate and similar between 16 wk (EDC: 50±4 %) and 30 wk female SHR (EDC: 59±7 %; p=N/S) as compared to the greater contractions of males that were exacerbated with ageing (see above; p<0.05 both sex and ageing comparison). A major role has been established for the cyclooxygenase (COX)-1-thromboxane A₂/prostaglandin (TP) receptor pathway in the impaired endothelial vasomotor function of male SHR. Indeed, a similar mechanism appears to be responsible for the dysfunction observed in 30 wk female SHR in this thesis since robust endothelial function was restored in these animals with both antagonism of TP receptor (EDR: 111±2 %; EDC: 7±2 %; p<0.05) and preferential inhibition of COX-1 (EDR: 112±3 %; EDC: –5±3 %; p<0.05). In contrast, preferential inhibition of COX-2 only partially tempered endothelial impairments of 30 wk female SHR (EDR: 99±5 %; EDC: 27±3 %; p<0.05), suggesting that, similar to ageing male SHR, this isoform makes at most a secondary contribution to the dysfunction in 30 wk female SHR. Collectively, these data indicate that ageing female SHR exhibit a mechanism of endothelial impairment that is similar to that of male SHR and that is largely COX-1- and TP receptor-dependent. Chapter 4 examines the ability of chronic dietary administration of the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3), to ameliorate endothelial vasomotor function in adult male SHR with established hypertension. The impaired endothelial function of aortic segments isolated from adult male SHR (EDR: 48±6 %) was not improved following 10–12 wk of DHA feeding (EDR: 45±5 %; p=N/S). This finding was unexpected since it has been shown in the literature that feeding other n-3 PUFAs improves vasomotor responses in younger SHR, in which hypertension and its associated consequences are still developing. This is the first report of the effects of n-3 PUFA on endothelial vasomotor responses in adult SHR with established hypertension. These data suggest that dietary DHA do not improve vasomotor function in adult SHR. Chapter 5 examines α₁ adrenergic contraction and EDR of aortic segments isolated from 14 wk old female Zucker diabetic fatty rats (ZDF), a genetic model of high fat diet-induced obesity and type 2 diabetes, and lean non-diabetic female Zucker Lean rats. Additionally, some ZDF received an 8 wk administration of anti-diabetic metformin drug therapy, aerobic exercise training, or a combination of the two. Maximal α₁ adrenergic contractions were over 2-fold higher in high fat-fed ZDF (1.69±0.16 g) compared to Lean (0.71±0.13 g; p<0.05). This elevation in ZDF was abolished by exercise training alone (1.02±0.17 g; p<0.05) but was not altered by metformin (1.56±0.19 g; p=N/S). In contrast to the severely impaired endothelial vasomotor function reported in male ZDF in the literature, robust EDR was observed in female ZDF (72±7 %) that was similar to Lean (75±6 %; p=N/S) and that was unaltered by exercise training (76±5 %; p=N/S) or metformin (76±6 %; p=N/S). These results indicate that enhanced α₁ adrenergic contraction is a mechanism of altered vasomotor function in female type 2 diabetic ZDF rats and that it could possibly be addressed by a chronic exercise training intervention. The main novelty of the thesis is the extension of the current understanding of endothelial vasomotor function to hypertensive and type 2 diabetic females. The knowledge gained from examining mechanisms involved in endothelial impairments in ageing hypertensive females and from testing the therapeutic potential of currently used anti-diabetic interventions in the type 2 diabetic female vasculature has interesting potential application. This basic scientific information could help direct clinical therapeutic strategies to target population-specific mechanisms of dysfunction. Understanding female sex-specific endothelial behaviour in patient populations is important for describing cardiovascular complications, defining mechanisms, and applying appropriate therapeutic targets. Findings from this thesis indicate a sex-dependence of the total divergence of endothelial function (e.g. female type 2 diabetic rats vs. male counterparts in the literature) and of the interaction of disease variables (e.g. age) and endothelial vasomotor responses.

Traditionally, fish meal (FM) and fish oil (FO) have been used extensively in aquafeeds, mainly due to their excellent nutritional properties. However, various reasons dictate the use of sustainable alternatives and the reduction of the dependence on these commodities in fish feeds. Hence, the aim of the present thesis was to investigate the effects of the replacement of FM and FO with two vegetable oils (VO) and an oilseed meal on the growth performance, feed utilization, nutrient and fatty acids (FA) digestibility and tissue FA composition and metabolism in three commercially important European fish species. Specifically, in Experiment I crude palm oil (PO) was used to replace FO in diets for rainbow trout. In Experiments II and III FO was replaced with rapeseed oil (RO) in diets for Atlantic salmon at various dietary protein/lipid levels aiming also at further reductions of FM by using low protein (high lipid) diet formulations. In Experiments II and III the fish were reared at low and high water temperatures, respectively, in order to elucidate, also, the potential effects of temperature. Lastly, the effects of the replacement of FM with full fat soya meal (FFS) in Atlantic cod were investigated in Experiment IV. The results of the present thesis showed no negative effects on growth performance and feed utilization in rainbow trout when FO was replaced with PO. The dietary inclusion of RO improved the growth of Atlantic salmon, possibly, due to changes in the nutrient and FA digestibilities and FA catabolism while, the growth and feed utilization were unaffected by the dietary protein/lipid level. However, the growth of Atlantic cod was affected negatively by the replacement of FM with FFS. The proximate composition of the fish whole body was in most cases unaffected by dietary treatments. The changes in dietary formulations affected the dietary FA compositions and resulted in significant changes in the fish tissue FA compositions. It was clearly shown that the fish tissue total lipid FA composition reflects the FA composition of the diet, although specific FA were selectively utilized or retained in the tissues by the fish. These may have serious implications not only for fish metabolism and growth but also for the quality of the final product, especially in terms of possible reductions of n-3 HUFA.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O óleo de peixe é rico em ácidos graxos poli-insaturados (AGPI) n-3 e vem sendo apontado como anti-inflamatório associado à melhora de diversas doenças de natureza inflamatória. No presente estudo, objetivou-se avaliar a influência do óleo de peixe sobre a inflamação pulmonar e hiper-reatividade em camundongos ativamente sensibilizados desafiados com ovoalbumina (OVA). Camundongos A/J machos foram alimentados com dieta standard-chow (SC) ou dieta rica em óleo de peixe (Px) durante 8 semanas. Após 4 semanas do início da dieta, cada grupo foi subdividido aleatoriamente para ser desafiado com salina (SC-SAL e PX-SAL) ou ovoalbumina (SC-OVA e PX-OVA). A função pulmonar (resistência e elastância) foi avaliada através de pletismografia invasiva, na condição de aerolização ou não com metacolina 24 horas após o último desafio antigênico. Foi realizado lavado broncoalveolar (LBA) para contagem de leucócitos e quantificação de eotaxina-2. A deposição de muco e de matriz peribronquiolar e o infiltrado de eosinófilos foram quantificados no tecido pulmonar. Foram avaliados interleucina (IL)-13 através de imunohistoquímica e NF&#954;B, GATA-3 e PPAR&#947;, por western-blotting. O desafio com OVA resultou em aumento da infiltração de eosinófilos, elevada produção de citocinas inflamatórias, remodelamento pulmonar, produção de muco e hiper-reatividade das vias aéreas. Detectou-se aumento na expressão dos fatores de transcrição NF&#954;B e GATA-3 nos camundongos do grupo sensibilizado e desafiado com OVA em comparação aos controles. Todas essas alterações foram atenuadas nos camundongos que receberam dieta com óleo de peixe. Expressão elevada de PPAR&#947; foi detectada nos pulmões dos camundongos dos grupos alimentados com óleo de peixe. Em conclusão, nossos resultados mostram que a ingestão de óleo de peixe atenuou as características clássicas do quadro asmático através da modulação da síntese de mediadores inflamatórios, via regulação negativa de NF&#954;B e GATA-3 e regulação positiva de PPAR&#947;. O óleo de peixe parece ser uma terapia alternativa para o controle e tratamento da asma. / Fish oil (FO) is rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), which have been suggested to be anti-inflammatory and are associated with improvement of several inflammatory diseases. In this study, we investigated the influence of FO on allergen-induced lung inflammation and airway hyperreactivity in mice. Male A/J mice were fed either a standard-chow (SC) or a FO diet (FO) for 8 weeks. After 4 weeks, each group was further randomized for ovalbumin (SC-OVA and FO-OVA) or saline (SC-SAL and FO-SAL) challenge. Resistance and elastance were measured at baseline and after aerosolized methacholine, 24h after the last challenge. Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) was performed for leukocyte counts and eotaxin-2 quantification. Lung tissue mucus deposition, peribronchiolar matrix deposition and eosinophil infiltration were quantified. Interleukin-13 expression was evaluated by immunohistochemistry and nuclear factor kappa B (NF&#954;B), GATA-3 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR&#947;) expression was measured by Western blot. OVA challenge resulted in increased eosinophil infiltration, increased inflammatory cytokine production, peribronchiolar matrix and mucus deposition and airway hyperreactivity to aerosolized methacholine. Elevated lung NF&#954;B and GATA-3 expression was noted in OVA-challenged mice, which was attenuated in FO diet-fed mice. Higher PPAR&#947; expression was also detected in the lungs from the FO-fed groups. In conclusion, FO intake attenuated classical asthma features by reducing inflammatory mediator production via GATA-3 and NF&#954;B down-regulation and PPAR&#947; up-regulation. Thus, FO might be an alternative therapy for asthma prevention and control.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O óleo de peixe é rico em ácidos graxos poli-insaturados (AGPI) n-3 e vem sendo apontado como anti-inflamatório associado à melhora de diversas doenças de natureza inflamatória. No presente estudo, objetivou-se avaliar a influência do óleo de peixe sobre a inflamação pulmonar e hiper-reatividade em camundongos ativamente sensibilizados desafiados com ovoalbumina (OVA). Camundongos A/J machos foram alimentados com dieta standard-chow (SC) ou dieta rica em óleo de peixe (Px) durante 8 semanas. Após 4 semanas do início da dieta, cada grupo foi subdividido aleatoriamente para ser desafiado com salina (SC-SAL e PX-SAL) ou ovoalbumina (SC-OVA e PX-OVA). A função pulmonar (resistência e elastância) foi avaliada através de pletismografia invasiva, na condição de aerolização ou não com metacolina 24 horas após o último desafio antigênico. Foi realizado lavado broncoalveolar (LBA) para contagem de leucócitos e quantificação de eotaxina-2. A deposição de muco e de matriz peribronquiolar e o infiltrado de eosinófilos foram quantificados no tecido pulmonar. Foram avaliados interleucina (IL)-13 através de imunohistoquímica e NF&#954;B, GATA-3 e PPAR&#947;, por western-blotting. O desafio com OVA resultou em aumento da infiltração de eosinófilos, elevada produção de citocinas inflamatórias, remodelamento pulmonar, produção de muco e hiper-reatividade das vias aéreas. Detectou-se aumento na expressão dos fatores de transcrição NF&#954;B e GATA-3 nos camundongos do grupo sensibilizado e desafiado com OVA em comparação aos controles. Todas essas alterações foram atenuadas nos camundongos que receberam dieta com óleo de peixe. Expressão elevada de PPAR&#947; foi detectada nos pulmões dos camundongos dos grupos alimentados com óleo de peixe. Em conclusão, nossos resultados mostram que a ingestão de óleo de peixe atenuou as características clássicas do quadro asmático através da modulação da síntese de mediadores inflamatórios, via regulação negativa de NF&#954;B e GATA-3 e regulação positiva de PPAR&#947;. O óleo de peixe parece ser uma terapia alternativa para o controle e tratamento da asma. / Fish oil (FO) is rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), which have been suggested to be anti-inflammatory and are associated with improvement of several inflammatory diseases. In this study, we investigated the influence of FO on allergen-induced lung inflammation and airway hyperreactivity in mice. Male A/J mice were fed either a standard-chow (SC) or a FO diet (FO) for 8 weeks. After 4 weeks, each group was further randomized for ovalbumin (SC-OVA and FO-OVA) or saline (SC-SAL and FO-SAL) challenge. Resistance and elastance were measured at baseline and after aerosolized methacholine, 24h after the last challenge. Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) was performed for leukocyte counts and eotaxin-2 quantification. Lung tissue mucus deposition, peribronchiolar matrix deposition and eosinophil infiltration were quantified. Interleukin-13 expression was evaluated by immunohistochemistry and nuclear factor kappa B (NF&#954;B), GATA-3 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR&#947;) expression was measured by Western blot. OVA challenge resulted in increased eosinophil infiltration, increased inflammatory cytokine production, peribronchiolar matrix and mucus deposition and airway hyperreactivity to aerosolized methacholine. Elevated lung NF&#954;B and GATA-3 expression was noted in OVA-challenged mice, which was attenuated in FO diet-fed mice. Higher PPAR&#947; expression was also detected in the lungs from the FO-fed groups. In conclusion, FO intake attenuated classical asthma features by reducing inflammatory mediator production via GATA-3 and NF&#954;B down-regulation and PPAR&#947; up-regulation. Thus, FO might be an alternative therapy for asthma prevention and control.

No description available.

Sammanfattning  Bakgrund Vitamin- och mineralbrister hos gravida kvinnor kan leda till missfall och allvarliga störningar i barnets utveckling. Moderns tarmflora överförs med stor sannolikhet till barnet under förlossningen och kan därför innebära ett viktigt steg i utvecklingen av barnets tarmflora. En tänkbar lösning för att säkra ett adekvat intag kan vara konsumtion av kosttillskott och probiotika. I dagsläget finns osäkra uppgifter om hur många gravida kvinnor som intar tillskott.  Syfte Att undersöka hur många gravida kvinnor i Västerbottens län som valde att inta kosttillskott, främst järn och probiotika, samt om det fanns en skillnad mellan olika faktorer och intag.  Metod En kvantitativ tvärsnittsstudie där gravida kvinnor (n=1473) från Northpop-studien i Västerbottens län svarade på ett frågeformulär gällande intag av kosttillskott och faktorer som ålder, utbildning, kostregim etc. De statistiska tester som användes var Chi-2-test, oberoende t-test och Mann Whitney U-test. Materialet analyserades i SPSS. Signifikansnivån sattes till p&lt;0,05.  Resultat Majoriteten av deltagarna svarade att de intog kosttillskott. Faktorer som ökade intaget av kosttillskott hos gravida kvinnor var högre ålder (p=0,030) jämfört med lägre ålder, högre utbildningsnivå (p=0,006) jämfört med lägre utbildningsnivå och vegetarisk/vegansk kost (p=0,021) jämfört med blandkost. Femtiofem procent uppgav att de intog järntillskott. De faktorer som ökade intaget av järntillskott hos gravida kvinnor var vegetarisk/vegansk kost (p=0,001) jämfört med blandkost. Probiotika intogs av 2 procent. Ett högre intag av probiotika sågs hos personer boende i stadsområde (p=0,024) jämfört med övriga boenderegioner samt de som åt vegetarisk/vegansk kost (p=0,001) jämfört med blandkost.  Slutsats Majoriteten av deltagarna intog någon typ av kosttillskott, hälften intog järntillskott och en liten andel intog probiotika. Lågutbildade, yngre, de som äter blandkost och bor utanför stadsområde verkar vara i riskgruppen för att inte inta kosttillskott. / Abstract  Background Vitamin and mineral deficiencies in pregnant women can lead to miscarriage and serious disturbances in children’s development. The intestinal flora of the mother is most likely transmitted to the child during childbirth and may lay the foundation for the child's health. One possible solution to ensure an adequate intake may be the consumption of dietary supplements and probiotics. At present, there is insufficient data on supplement consumption among pregnant women.  Objective The purpose of the study was to examine how many pregnant women in Västerbotten County chose to consume dietary supplements, mainly iron and probiotics, and whether there was a difference between different factors and intake.  Method A quantitative cross-sectional study where pregnant women (n=1473) from the Northpop-study in Västerbotten County responded to a questionnaire regarding consumption of dietary supplements and factors such as age, education, diet etc. The material was analyzed in SPSS with Chi-2-test, independent T-Test and Mann-Whitney U-Test. Using significance level &lt;0.05.  Results The majority of participants, 90 percent, responded that they consumed dietary supplements. The factors that increased the intake of dietary supplements in pregnant women were higher age (p=0.030), higher education (p=0.006) and vegetarian/vegan diet (p=0.021). Iron was reported to be consumed by 804 people, 55 percent. The factors that increased the intake of iron supplement in pregnant women were vegetarian/vegan diet (p=0.001). Probiotics were consumed by 25 people, 2 percent. Living in urban areas (p=0.024) and eating vegetarian/vegan diet (p=0.002) increased consumption of probiotics.  Conclusion The majority of participants chose to consume some type of dietary supplement, half of the participants consumed iron supplements and a small part consumed probiotics. It appears that pregnant women who are low educated, younger, eating an omnivorous diet and living outside urban areas are in the risk zone for not consuming dietary supplements. / Northpop