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Content-based language instruction has gained widespread acceptance as an effective approach in a range of educational settings for adults and children. It is premised on the belief that language and content are inextricably linked and that learning is enhanced through an integrated approach. Yet the nature of the relationship between content and language, and how integration can be achieved in the content-based language classroom, continue to be points of divergence for both researchers and practitioners. One approach to this question draws on research in form-focused instruction (FFI), which describes various instructional options that draw learners’ attention to form in primarily meaning and content-based classrooms. While widely accepted that FFI has a positive impact on language learning outcomes in a variety of contexts, FFI research in content-based language programs for adults has been limited. This study investigated the effect and effectiveness of FFI in a content-based language program designed to prepare adult newcomers to Canada for employment in a specific workplace sector. Two groups of adult learners participated in the study. One group of 16 adults received content-based instruction integrated with FFI while the other group of 20 adults received the same content-based instruction with a focus on meaning only. A quasi-experimental, pre-test/post-test/delayed post-test design was adopted for this comparative study in order to measure language and content outcomes. Language measures included an error correction task, a cloze task, and oral production tasks. Content outcomes were measured via content tests. In addition, a retrospective awareness protocol was designed to assess learners’ awareness of language and content in their instruction and to explore the relationship between this awareness and language development. ANOVA and ANCOVA results indicated that there was no advantage for the participants receiving form-focused instruction on language outcomes but a significant benefit on the content knowledge tests. Analysis of the retrospective report data indicated that the participants were able to identify the focus of the instruction they received. However, no relationship between awareness of language and language development was found. These findings are discussed in light of previous research and in terms of their implications for content-based language instruction.

Content-based language instruction has gained widespread acceptance as an effective approach in a range of educational settings for adults and children. It is premised on the belief that language and content are inextricably linked and that learning is enhanced through an integrated approach. Yet the nature of the relationship between content and language, and how integration can be achieved in the content-based language classroom, continue to be points of divergence for both researchers and practitioners. One approach to this question draws on research in form-focused instruction (FFI), which describes various instructional options that draw learners’ attention to form in primarily meaning and content-based classrooms. While widely accepted that FFI has a positive impact on language learning outcomes in a variety of contexts, FFI research in content-based language programs for adults has been limited. This study investigated the effect and effectiveness of FFI in a content-based language program designed to prepare adult newcomers to Canada for employment in a specific workplace sector. Two groups of adult learners participated in the study. One group of 16 adults received content-based instruction integrated with FFI while the other group of 20 adults received the same content-based instruction with a focus on meaning only. A quasi-experimental, pre-test/post-test/delayed post-test design was adopted for this comparative study in order to measure language and content outcomes. Language measures included an error correction task, a cloze task, and oral production tasks. Content outcomes were measured via content tests. In addition, a retrospective awareness protocol was designed to assess learners’ awareness of language and content in their instruction and to explore the relationship between this awareness and language development. ANOVA and ANCOVA results indicated that there was no advantage for the participants receiving form-focused instruction on language outcomes but a significant benefit on the content knowledge tests. Analysis of the retrospective report data indicated that the participants were able to identify the focus of the instruction they received. However, no relationship between awareness of language and language development was found. These findings are discussed in light of previous research and in terms of their implications for content-based language instruction.

Foundation Programme (FP) students at the University of Namibia (UNAM) Oshakati Campus display inadequate academic writing abilities. As their aim is to gain admittance to UNAM main campus science-related courses, it is vital to have effective academic writing skills. This action research (AR) study is a comparison of three writing programmes, the process approach, the modeling approach, and the process genre approach which were implemented separately to three different class groups in 2008 and 2009 to improve the writing skills of students and the teaching practice of the researcher. The effects of the interventions were examined using a combination of the quantitative and qualitative research methods. Data were collected using questionnaires, pre- and post-intervention essays and laboratory reports and interviews. The findings indicate that all three approaches improved the academic writing skills of FP students. The process genre approach had a higher rate of effect than the other two approaches. / English Studies / M. A. (Specialisation TESOL)

Cette thèse a été subventionnée par Le Fonds de recherche du Québec – Société et culture (FRQSC) / Dans cette thèse, l’auteur s’est penché sur la question de l’apprentissage/enseignement du vocabulaire en français langue seconde (L2). Depuis plusieurs années, la recherche en L2 fait face à une question essentielle : celle de l’efficacité de différentes approches d’enseignement lexical afin de favoriser l’apprentissage des mots. Certains chercheurs (par ex. Krashen, 1982, 1989) considèrent que l’apprentissage du vocabulaire en L2, tout comme celui des aspects morphosyntaxiques, se produit uniquement de façon incidente pendant l’exposition aux différents échantillons de la langue (c.-à-d., l’intrant) et à travers des activités centrées sur le sens communicatif telles que la lecture de textes. D’autres (par ex. Laufer, 2005, 2006) préconisent une approche plus explicite de l’enseignement du vocabulaire, centrée sur les aspects formels des éléments lexicaux (form-focused instruction). Cette question n’a pas fait l’objet d’une recherche exhaustive, surtout en ce qui concerne les modalités de l’enseignement centré sur la forme (FFI) et le moment approprié (le FFI intégré vs le FFI isolé) pour le fournir, d’où l’importance de cette recherche. Trois études expérimentales ont été effectuées afin d’examiner l’efficacité de différentes approches d’enseignement du vocabulaire en français. Quarante-deux apprenants de français L2 ont participé à deux études de cas multiples (n = 9 et n = 10) et à une étude quasi-expérimentale (n = 23). Les deux premières études ont servi de pilotes pour l’élaboration de la méthodologie de la troisième étude. L'intervention expérimentale (quatre périodes de 45 minutes chacune) ciblant 36 mots a été réalisée à travers trois conditions expérimentales (FFI intégré, FFI isolé et répétition) et une condition de contrôle (apprentissage incident via la lecture). Chacun des participants a bénéficié de toutes les conditions. En d’autres termes, parmi les mots ciblés, certains devaient être appris incidemment, certains à travers une exposition répétée et certains ont été enseignés par le FFI intégré et le FFI isolé. Des tâches lexicales ont été administrées avant et deux fois après l'intervention. Les résultats indiquent les avantages du FFI en comparaison avec l'apprentissage incident et la répétition sans aucune différence significative entre le FFI isolé et le FFI intégré. La conclusion de cette thèse met l’emphase sur l’importance du FFI afin d’améliorer l’apprentissage du vocabulaire, tout en précisant le caractère indispensable des activités de récupération pour diminuer la perte de l’apprentissage produit. / In this thesis, the author examined the question of vocabulary learning/teaching in French as a second language (L2). L2 research has been interested in the effects of different approaches of lexical instruction on vocabulary learning. Some researchers (e.g. Krashen, 1982, 1989) contend that L2 learning, vocabulary and morphosyntax, occurs incidentally through the exposure to comprehensible input and through meaning-based activities such as reading. Others (e.g. Laufer, 2005, 2006) advocate a more explicit approach to vocabulary teaching, focused on the form of lexical elements. The effects of lexical form-focused instruction (FFI) have not been thoroughly investigated, particularly its different modalities and timing (integrated FFI vs isolated FFI), hence the relevance of this research. Three experimental studies were conducted to examine the effectiveness of different vocabulary teaching approaches in French as an L2. Forty-two L2 French learners participated in two multiple case studies (n = 9 and n = 10) and a quasi-experimental study (n = 23). Among other things, the first two studies were designed to serve as pilots for the methodological design of the third study. The experimental intervention (four periods of 45 minutes each) targeting 36 words was carried out through three experimental conditions (integrated FFI, isolated FFI and repetition) and a control condition (incidental learning through reading). Each participant benefited from all the conditions. In other words, among the targeted words, some had to be learned incidentally, some through repeated exposure and some were taught by the integrated FFI and the isolated FFI. Lexical tasks were administered before intervention started and twice after it ended (immediate posttest and delayed posttest). Results indicate the advantages of FFI compared to incidental learning and repetition. However, there is no significant differences between the isolated FFI and the integrated FFI. The conclusion of this thesis emphasizes the importance of FFI in order to improve the vocabulary learning, while specifying the necessity of the retrieval activities to reduce learning loss.

L’enseignement des langues par la tâche est une approche d’enseignement des langues secondes de plus en plus adoptée dans différents contextes. Toutefois, la place de l’enseignement de la forme au sein d’une tâche fait toujours l’objet d’un débat. En plus de savoir si l’enseignement de la forme devrait se faire de façon préventive ou réactive (Ellis, 2017; Long, 2015), le moment auquel il faudrait procéder à un enseignement de la forme ne fait pas consensus, que ce soit au début de la tâche (Dekeyser, 1997, 2007), pendant la tâche (Lightbown, 2008; Long, 2015) ou après la tâche (Willis et Willis, 2007). Cette incertitude mène les enseignants à se demander s’ils devraient intégrer ou non un enseignement de la forme à une tâche et à quel moment ils devraient le faire (East, 2017). La présente étude quasi expérimentale vise à mieux comprendre le rôle lié au moment de procéder à un enseignement de la forme dans le cadre d’une tâche et à contrôler certaines variables qui peuvent moduler les effets du type d’enseignement, dont le niveau de connaissances initiales et l’aptitude langagière des apprenants. Huit groupes, six groupes expérimentaux et deux groupes témoins, d’étudiants de français langue seconde (quatre groupes de niveau B1 et quatre groupes de niveau B2) ainsi que leurs enseignants respectifs ont participé à l’étude. L’intervention expérimentale consistait en une tâche de hiérarchisation et une tâche de prise de décision. Six groupes ont reçu un enseignement explicite du subjonctif soit au début de chaque tâche, soit pendant la tâche, soit après la tâche et deux groupes ont réalisé les deux tâches sans recevoir d’enseignement explicite. Les participants (n = 165) ont effectué un prétest, un post-test immédiat et un post-test différé mesurant les connaissances implicites (test d’imitation sollicitée) et explicites (test de jugement de la grammaticalité) et ont effectué un test mesurant l’aptitude langagière (LLAMA). Le degré de connaissances des apprenants a été déterminé en fonction de leurs résultats aux prétests. Les participants dont les résultats étaient en dessous de la médiane ont été attribués aux groupes de niveau faible et ceux dont les résultats étaient au-dessus de la médiane ont été attribués aux groupes de niveau avancé. Les résultats d’ANOVA à mesures répétées montrent que les apprenants moins avancés semblent bénéficier d’un enseignement pendant la tâche, alors que les étudiants plus avancés semblent bénéficier d’un enseignement au début de la tâche. Par conséquent, le niveau des apprenants est à prendre en considération au moment de planifier un enseignement de la forme. Par ailleurs, les résultats de régressions multiples montrent que l’aptitude langagière est davantage sollicitée dans les conditions d’enseignement de la forme avant ou pendant la tâche et que différentes composantes interviennent à des stades d’acquisition différents. Cette étude offre des répercussions pratiques et théoriques au regard du moment de procéder à un enseignement de la forme en fonction du niveau des apprenants et de leur aptitude langagière. / Task-Based Language Teaching is an increasingly popular approach used in a variety of second-language learning environments. There is debate, however, on the incorporation of form-focused instruction and, more specifically, regarding when precisely it should be integrated in the execution of a task. Beyond determining whether a form should be taught proactively or reactively (Ellis, 2017, Long, 2015), the lack of consensus as to whether form-focused instruction should occur at the beginning of a task (Dekeyser, 1997, 2007), during a task (Lightbown, 2008; Long, 2015), or after a task (Willis et Willis, 2007) drives language instructors to question whether they should integrate form-focused instruction at all and creates uncertainty as to when it is most beneficial to do so (East, 2017). The present quasi experimental study seeks to better understand the effects of the timing of form-focused instruction in the task-based teaching framework while controlling for moderating variables such as the degree of learner knowledge and learners’ language aptitude. Eight groups, six experimental and two comparison, of French as a second language students (four groups of B1 level and four groups of B2 level) and their respective teachers participated in the study. The experimental intervention consisted of two tasks, one hierarchical task and one decision-making task. Six groups received explicit instruction on the subjunctive at the beginning, during, or after a task while two groups completed the tasks without explicit instruction. The participants (N = 165) completed a pre-test, an immediate post-test and a delayed post-test assessing both implicit knowledge (Elicited Imitation Test) and explicit knowledge (Grammaticality Judgment Test). Participants also completed a language aptitude assessment test (LLAMA). Learners’ degree of knowledge was determined based on their pre-test performance. Participants whose mean scores were below or above the median were assigned to the low or advanced knowledge groups respectively. Repeated-measures ANOVAs show that lower-level learners benefit from instruction during a task while more advanced learners benefit from instruction at the start of a task. Consequently, learner readiness is a factor to consider when planning and executing focus on form instruction. Additionally, multiple regression results demonstrate that language aptitude plays a more significant role when form-focused instruction is given before or during a task and that different components are drawn upon at different acquisitional stages. The study concludes by offering theories and practical recommendations regarding the inclusion of focus on form instruction that considers the level and aptitude of learners.

Foundation Programme (FP) students at the University of Namibia (UNAM) Oshakati Campus display inadequate academic writing abilities. As their aim is to gain admittance to UNAM main campus science-related courses, it is vital to have effective academic writing skills. This action research (AR) study is a comparison of three writing programmes, the process approach, the modeling approach, and the process genre approach which were implemented separately to three different class groups in 2008 and 2009 to improve the writing skills of students and the teaching practice of the researcher. The effects of the interventions were examined using a combination of the quantitative and qualitative research methods. Data were collected using questionnaires, pre- and post-intervention essays and laboratory reports and interviews. The findings indicate that all three approaches improved the academic writing skills of FP students. The process genre approach had a higher rate of effect than the other two approaches. / English Studies / M. A. (Specialisation TESOL)

Research demonstrating the beneficial effects of corrective feedback (CF) for second language (L2) learning (e,g., Li, 2010) has almost invariably resulted from studies in which CF was provided immediately. Yet teachers are often encouraged to delay CF to avoid interrupting learners (Harmer, 2001). This study investigates how differences in the timing of CF on oral production affect L2 learning and learners’ reactions to CF. Theoretically, Immediate CF may facilitate L2 development by allowing learners to immediately compare their errors to accurate models (i.e., recasting, e.g., Doughty, 2001). The effectiveness of Immediate CF has also been linked to skill acquisition theory because some CF (i.e., prompting) is hypothesized to help learners proceduralize their L2 knowledge (Ranta & Lyster, 2007). This thesis introduces additional theoretical explanations to explain the effectiveness of both Immediate and Delayed CF. For example, reactivation and reconsolidation theory (Nader & Einarsson, 2010) holds that long-term mental representations are susceptible to change when they are recalled. Thus, both Immediate and Delayed CF may help learners alter their incorrect mental representations of language features if that CF reminds learners of those incorrect representations and provides them with accurate models. In a laboratory-based study, 90 intermediate-level adult ESL learners were randomly assigned to Immediate, Delayed, and No CF conditions. Learners took three pre-tests to measure their knowledge of the English passive construction: an aural grammaticality judgment test (AGJT), an oral production test (OPT), and a written error correction test (ECT). Next, they received some brief instruction on the passive. Learners then completed three communicative tasks in which the CF conditions were provided. These tasks were followed by immediate and delayed post-tests. Learners’ reactions to CF were elicited with a questionnaire. Mixed-design one-way ANOVAs revealed statistically significant improvement for all conditions over time on all measures, but no statistically significant differences between conditions. The questionnaires revealed that learners prefer Immediate CF, but that Immediate CF may constrain CF noticeability and learners’ independence, while Delayed CF may cause anxiety or embarrassment. In summary, altering the timing of CF did not differentially affect L2 development, but it did elicit different reactions from learners.