Thesis (M.S.)--Boston University / The ability to recognize and identify skeletal material is a fundamental skill in forensic and physical anthropology. Understanding the process that remains have undergone when they have been exposed to a fire environment necessitates further study and specialization as the basic structure of a bone may be altered from the microscopic level to the overall morphology. Analysis of burnt bone goes beyond understanding how the normal taphonomic processes may affect skeletal remains to the specifics of heat and fire related changes. Additionally, the study of how heat or fire alteration affects trauma determinations can be important for determining the forensic significance of a case. The procedures of a fire investigation play a very important role in the recognition, preservation and analysis of skeletal remains especially considering site recovery techniques and perimortem trauma interpretation determination. This study utilized whole pigs to document changes to trauma from exposure to a compartment fire. The results were compared to previous studies done on individual skeletal elements to show that trauma was still recognizable and often protected in the postcranial body.

Thesis (M.S.)--Boston University. / A significant portion of the research in the field of forensic anthropology involves examining cadaveric remains that have undergone some degree of decomposition. There have been many studies published focusing on a multitude of variables that affect the decomposition process, such as temperature, carcass size, insect access, animal scavenging, and weather patterns. There are however, very few studies which focus on the rate of decomposition in remains that have experienced significant trauma and/or blood loss. Accordingly, this study will assess the effects of exsanguination on the rate of the decomposition process in a northeastern United States environment. Four porcine cadavers (Sus scrota domesticus) were used to model human decomposition. Based upon prior unpublished observations, the intent of the present study was to evaluate the hypothesis that exsanguination of remains would delay the onset and progression of the decomposition process. Observed delay of the arrival of insects will likely be linked to the lack of blood as an attractant. The three porcine carcasses utilized as the experimental group for this study were exsanguinated by captive-bolt sacrifice and use of a large-gauge syringe to remove blood directly from the heart. Each individual carcass was placed in a cage to isolate them from the effects of larger scavengers and were allowed to completely decompose to the point of only dry skeletal material over a period of two months. Although the small sample size limits any definitive statistical analysis, the results generated by this study depict a trend towards the exsanguinated individuals decomposing at a faster rate than the unaltered control group.

Sex estimation is important in both forensic and bioarchaeological contexts for the construction of a biological profile, which might aid in the identification process in forensic cases or answer demographic questions in archaeological contexts. The os coxa is generally considered the best indicator of sex, given its reproductive functionality in females, although it is not always available for analysis, thus presenting a need for alternative methods of sex estimation. The present research aims to validate the previous study by Albanese (2013), which examined the use of the clavicle, humerus, radius, and ulna. Albanese (2013) applied logistic regression analysis to the osteometric data and achieved allocation accuracies between 87.4% and 97.5%. A sample size of 400, comprised of American Whites and American Blacks from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection, was utilized in the present study. The present study applies both discriminant function analysis and logistic regression analysis to a total of 20 measurements collected from the clavicle, humerus, radius, and ulna, including three variant measurements that were proposed by Albanese (2013), and a set discriminant functions and logistic regression equations were produced to classify individuals as male or female. Allocation accuracies as high as 100% were produced by the logistic regression equation that utilized all measurements. Discriminant analysis was applied to each of the bones individually, and the results indicated that the humerus exhibited the most sexual dimorphism and had the highest allocation accuracies (95.0% for males and 97.0% for females). Measurements that exhibited the greatest degree of sexual dimorphism were those representative of joint size such as the maximum diameter of the radial head, the vertical diameter of the humeral head, and the epicondylar breadth of the humerus. A set of equations were produced through discriminant function analysis, which are representative of various recovery scenarios and are meant to provide the examiner with sets of equations that might be applicable to a particular case. Because of its high allocation accuracies and its applicability to contemporary American White and Black populations, the methodology should be useful in forensic contexts within the United States. Sex estimation is important in both forensic and bioarchaeological contexts for the construction of a biological profile, which might aid in the identification process in forensic cases or answer demographic questions in archaeological contexts. The os coxa is generally considered the best indicator of sex, given its reproductive functionality in females, although it is not always available for analysis, thus presenting a need for alternative methods of sex estimation. The present research aims to validate the previous study by Albanese (2013), which examined the use of the clavicle, humerus, radius, and ulna. Albanese (2013) applied logistic regression analysis to the osteometric data and achieved allocation accuracies between 87.4% and 97.5%. A sample size of 400, comprised of American Whites and American Blacks from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection, was utilized in the present study. The present study applies both discriminant function analysis and logistic regression analysis to a total of 20 measurements collected from the clavicle, humerus, radius, and ulna, including three variant measurements that were proposed by Albanese (2013), and a set discriminant functions and logistic regression equations were produced to classify individuals as male or female. Allocation accuracies as high as 100% were produced by the logistic regression equation that utilized all measurements. Discriminant analysis was applied to each of the bones individually, and the results indicated that the humerus exhibited the most sexual dimorphism and had the highest allocation accuracies (95.0% for males and 97.0% for females). Measurements that exhibited the greatest degree of sexual dimorphism were those representative of joint size such as the maximum diameter of the radial head, the vertical diameter of the humeral head, and the epicondylar breadth of the humerus. A set of equations were produced through discriminant function analysis, which are representative of various recovery scenarios and are meant to provide the examiner with sets of equations that might be applicable to a particular case. Because of its high allocation accuracies and its applicability to contemporary American White and Black populations, the methodology should be useful in forensic contexts within the United States.

Estimating the minimum time since death (minimum Post Mortem Interval, minPMI) is a necessary part of a forensic investigation. Besides the coroner’s assessment of the typical signs of death, minPMI can be estimated using forensic entomology, the scientific discipline that considers insects and other arthropods that colonize the remains. In an aquatic environment, insects, as well as crustaceans, have the potential to provide data regarding the time spent in water of the remains (FT, floating time and PMSI, Post Mortem Submersion Interval), and this can also assist in determining the minPMI. Barnacles (Crustacea: Cirripedia) are common crustaceans that colonize hard substrates in marine environments and they can often be found in association with human and animal remains floating in the sea. The scientific literature reports that barnacles are typically found colonizing shoes. Barnacles can colonize both floating remains and submerged remains and their growth rate is dependent on the water temperature. Despite their potential to be indicative of the FT and/or PMSI, at present research is deplete and only a few case studies have considered it for this purpose. The present research is focused on the barnacle colonization of different type of shoes (sport vs patent leather) placed in the sea (Boston Harbor, Boston, Massachusetts). The objectives of this study are 1) identification of the species of barnacles that colonize shoes; 2) identification of the settlement preferences of the barnacles associated with the shoes; 3) determination of the growth rate of the barnacles associated with the shoes. This research as initially conducted in early March 2016, with 64 sport and 64 patent leather shoes placed in the Boston Harbor at -8/-10 meters below the sea level. Four of each shoe type were collected every two weeks from April 2016 to November 2016 inclusive. Each shoe was photographed and the barnacles and other sea life colonization was documented. Individual barnacles from each shoe were sampled and measured to determine species, age as well as the overall colonization density and settlement preference. Data loggers were placed with the shoes to record temperature throughout the course of the study. Results show that Amphibalanus improvisus (Darwin) (Crustacea: Cirripedia: Sessilia) colonized the vast majority of shoes. Colonization occurred quickly and continued throughout the study period. A significant difference in colonization densities was found between the sport and patent leather shoes, with the patent leather seeing higher densities. Barnacles also showed preferential colonization of specific sections on both shoe types. Overall, higher quantities of barnacles were found on the exterior and bottom of shoes and low quantities of colonization on the inside, tongue, and laces. Barnacle growth was found to be significantly affected by water temperature. Statistical analysis of the effect of water temperature, time in the water, and shoe type on the size of the largest barnacle revealed a highly significant effect of temperature and shoe type but no significant effect of time. As well, time and shoe type had a highly significant effect on the total number of barnacles per shoe, whereas water temperature did not.

Estimating age at death from the sacrum is largely understudied (Passalacqua 2009; Colarusso 2015). The present study aims to expand on existing research of both developmental and degenerative changes of the sacrum that occur in adulthood. Observations were made at the W.M. Bass Collection located in Knoxville, TN (n=326). Features of the sacral auricular surface studied include micro- and macroporosity, coarse granularity, dense bone, and lipping at apices. These traits were scored and resulted in the development of composite scoring system. Fusion of the sacral vertebral bodies at the first and second anterior junction and the incorporation of the sacral vertebral ring were also observed and scored on ordinal scales. Spearman rank correlation tests demonstrated positive correlation between chronological age and the observed skeletal traits. The research presented here demonstrates that the sacrum exhibits age-related changes, although the age intervals presented are not useful in a forensic setting.

Footwear impressions can be found at any type of crime scene. Footwear impressions are valuable pieces of physical evidence when discovered, properly documented and collected. Two-dimensional footwear impressions can be left behind when the outsole of a shoe comes into contact with a substance and then the substance is transferred to a surface, leaving a positive impression on that surface [1-3]. 2-D impressions can also occur when a shoe steps onto a dusty surface and the dust adheres to the tread elements, which take away the dust leaving behind a negative impression [2,3]. Footwear impression evidence may display class characteristics, such as the type, manufacturer, the approximate size and shape and general description of the shoes [2]. They are most commonly documented and collected through photography, specifically examination quality photographs. The value of the photographs taken depends on the quality of the images and requires the correct placement of the scale and angle of the camera. In order to ensure an accurate representation of the evidence, the camera should be parallel to the impression and a scale must be present in the same plane as the impression. Taking photographs at any other angle can distort the object in the photograph, resulting in incorrect measurements, which can hinder the comparison process between the photographed object and the physical object. Digital imaging applications and software can be used to calibrate images, meaning the scale is used to adjust, or calibrate, the photographed image into a 1:1 image or actual size. Forensic photography guidelines provided by SWGTREAD stress the importance of scale placement and the position of the camera lens, but research on how exact these two steps must be executed to accurately determine the physical size or dimensions of the shoe remains limited [3,4]. The goal of this project was to determine how the positioning of a scale in relationship to the footwear impression can potentially lead to possible distortion of the actual size of the photographed impression. This project seeks to evaluate the extent to which the depth of the scale and impression can vary before the size of the photographed impression becomes measurably distorted as well as evaluate the tolerable range of angle tilt of the scale allowed before the size of the photographed impression becomes distorted. A left counterfeit Nike Air Jordan’s shoe from the Jordan Melo line, US adult size 7.5 was used to make several test impressions and then the best impression with the highest quality was chosen to be photographed. Examination quality photographs of the test impression with the scale in the same plane were taken, followed by an incremental increase in the height/distance (0-66.9 mm) of the scale from the ground and lastly, with an incremental increase in the angle (0-20 degrees) of the camera horizontally, vertically left and right. The photographs were then calibrated using Adobe® Photoshop® and actual size images were printed out. Based on the tread design, ten areas present on the outsole were examined through measurement. The results indicated that if the scale was placed at a height within 5.7 mm of the height of the impression, then there would be no change in estimated shoe size. However, if the scale was placed a distance or height of 7.6 mm or greater from the bottom of the impression, then the image would result in a change of half a shoe size or more. Also, if the angle of the camera was greater than 8 degrees horizontally or greater than 14 degrees vertically to the left there was a change in the apparent shoe size. However, there was no change in the shoe size when the camera angle increased horizontally up to 8 degrees, vertically up to 20 degrees, and vertically up to 14 degrees. It is important to be aware of discrepancies that can exist in size dimensions when the scale placement and camera angle are not in the correct plane and position. The distorted images may result in false measurements, which can lead to inaccurate size interpretations. This would be problematic when comparing a suspect’s shoe to the photographed footwear impression, possibly resulting in false inclusion or exclusion decisions of the questioned footwear impression.

Forensic archaeology applies archaeological methods to crime scenes which provides better documentation and a more complete recovery of skeletal remains. It is important to have a recovery protocol for burned vehicle scenarios that will help to recover more skeletal remains and aid in the investigative process. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) remains and pig (Sus scrofa) mandibles were burned in two recycled vehicles. Recovery protocols outlined by previous researchers and screening methods were tested in this study to determine the most effective recovery method to be used in a burned vehicle scenario. Screening methods that were tested include wet screening, dry screening, 1/4-inch mesh, and 1.0 mm mesh screen sizes. A univariate ANOVA test was conducted using the total mass percentages of skeletal remains recovered from each separate screening method. The p value from this statistical test was 0.938 and was not significant. The results demonstrated that no individual screening method was significantly more effective than another screening method even though more skeletal remains were recovered using wet screening and 1.0 mm mesh screen size. The recovery of identified skeletal remains was tested by comparing the total mass percentage of identified skeletal remains recovered between wet and dry screening methods. The p value for this univariate ANOVA test was 0.421. Neither wet or dry screening methods were statistically more effective when recovering identifiable skeletal fragments during the comparative process, but wet screening overall recovered more identifiable skeletal remains. Based on the results of this study, it is recommended that recovery protocols used in a burned vehicle scenario include using personal protective equipment to prevent inhaling toxins from the burned vehicles. Further, the vehicle should be split into zones for recovery to facilitate proper documentation of the skeletal remains. The large burned car debris should be removed from above and around the immediate area of the skeletal remains. Larger identifiable skeletal remains should be recovered first, placed in labeled bags, and placed in a container for transportation to the laboratory. Smaller skeletal remains and ash matrix should be recovered using a small soft bristle brush and small make-up brushes, and the ash should be swept into a dust pan for removal from the vehicle. The ash matrix should be placed in a large bucket and covered with a lid when excavation is complete so that the bucket can be safely transported to an area where the remains can be screened. Screening methods should include the use of wet screening and a smaller screen size than 1/4-inch, such as 1/8-inch or 1.0 mm mesh screen sizes.

Individualization of skeletal remains is a critical component of archaeological and forensic investigations. Bone growth at tendon insertion sites, or enthesophytes, have been researched as individualizing musculoskeletal stress markers and were previously shown to relate to age, body mass, and possibly occupation; however, no such research exists regarding ancestral correlations. Research shows that African American bone density is significantly higher than other ancestral groups; thus, it is hypothesized that African Americans have a higher tendency for additional bone growth in relation to age, body mass, and occupation. To test this hypothesis, 230 individuals from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, were analyzed following previously established and revised standards for scoring enthesophyte development in the upper and lower limbs. The individuals were of European American (n=176) and African American (n=54) ancestry, and were scored at random for enthesophyte development before reviewing demographic information. Each tendon insertion site was compared to the demographic information and ancestral origin of the individuals. The results confirm the expected link between enthesophyte development with age and body mass, along with a possibility that African Americans display greater bone development at tendon insertion sites. Further, upper limb scores displayed stronger correlations with demographic information than the lower limb, providing a better focus for future research. The correlation of enthesophyte development with demographic information may aid in anthropological investigations, providing an additional method for individualization and identification of biomechanical stresses in skeletal remains.

The identification of individuals is the primary goal in any forensic investigation. To facilitate an identification, a biological profile (age, sex, ancestry, stature) for the unknown individual is created by a forensic anthropologist. For adult individuals, the aspects of the biological profile are largely straightforward. For subadult individuals, the only aspect of the profile that can be reliably estimated is age. However, an important but difficult aspect of the biological profile is ancestry. When working toward an identification of a set of subadult remains, it can only be said that the remains are consistent with the demographic profile of a missing child. Little research exists that examines the use of nonmetric traits for ancestry assessment in subadult individuals, and little is known about how the traits are expressed in different age groups. This study examines ancestry assessment in subadult skeletons using the Hamann-Todd Osteological Collection at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, the Terry Osteological Collection at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, and the Johns Hopkins Fetal Skull Collection at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. To assess ancestry, the skull and mandible of 307 subadult individuals, aged 0-20 years with known demographics are examined using the 15 nonmetric traits examined by Hefner (2009) normally used with adult individuals. Despite difficulties in scoring all 15 traits, there were differences found with each trait when compared to ancestral groups. Even among the youngest individuals in the sample, the traits could be identified and scored.

Cancer is a result of regulated cellular growth which eventually disrupts normal bodily function. With individuals assigned male at birth (AMAB), prostate cancer (PCa) is the second most common cancer both globally and in the United States. In an advance state, cancerous cells can metastasize—leave the primary cancer site—and survive in a new organ. In the case of PCa, the skeleton is a common site for metastasis. The toll that cancer, especially advanced metastatic cancer, takes on a person can lead to social and financial instability as those diagnosed with cancer are at a higher risk of depression, suicide, and loss of employment. Job loss may also lead to the loss of healthcare insurance which can limit or completely erase a person’s access to their treatment options. These factors can impact a person’s ability to maintain their livelihood, placing them in more vulnerable situations that are associated with higher rates of mortality due to unexpected and/or suspicious circumstances of forensic relevance. Forensic anthropology often employs medical imaging (e.g., radiographic imaging and computed tomography (CT)) to visualize unique internal features of skeletal remains to aid in identification. While certain skeletal elements like cranial sinuses are proven to be accurate and reliable in forensic identifications, research is increasing surrounding the use of pathological conditions for identifications. This research focuses on analyzing computed X-ray tomography of metastatic skeletal lesions in 14 PCa patients from Boston Medical Center (BMC) over a 10-year period to observe and record how the size, appearance, and anatomical location of skeletal metastatic lesions may change overtime. This preliminary research looks to better understand the evolution of cancerous metastatic bone disease in PCa patients and contemplate if these lesions may one day be a viable identification method in forensic anthropology, highlighting a unique forensic anthropological focus of this research compared to previous studies on PCa. The BMC PCa sample had lesion behavior comparable to previous clinical studies of PCa patients with metastatic bone disease. With the BMC PCa sample, metastatic lesions developed most in the spine, pelves, and rib cage, with the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae having the highest metastatic burden. The visual appearance and anatomical location of a lesion was usually stable across time unless is resolved or became too small for visual analysis at some point during the study. While no results were statistically significant, similar developments were seen across the sample. Once lesions developed in the lumbar vertebrae, it was most likely that those lesions would be present throughout the entire observation period, versus lesions that developed elsewhere in the skeleton. Metastatic lesions tended to increase in size than decrease or remain static, developing the largest in the pelvic region. Bone density and vascularity and/or type of therapeutic treatment received may factor in as influential aspects in lesion development. This study provides detailed research on the behavior and characteristics of metastatic skeletal lesions in PCa patient with the aim of investigating their potential use as a secondary means of identification in forensic anthropology. The results showed that the location appearance of the lesions was often stable, but their size could fluctuate over time. Though direct comparison between antemortem and postmortem radiographs of skeletal metastatic lesions may not be fully accurate at this time, the study suggests that further research in this area, and overall inclusion of pathological conditions in a forensic setting, would be valuable for forensic investigations and beneficial to other disciplines.