Bakgrund: Självskadebeteende är ett ökande fenomen bland världens ungdomar. Det har visat sig vara fler flickor än pojkar som självskadar. Psykisk ohälsa är en individuell uppfattning och därmed svår att definiera men det resulterar ofta i ett stort personligt lidande där en ständig kamp mellan gott och ont, lust och lidande pågår inom människan. Sjuksköterskan ska främja hälsa och lindra lidande och ett negativt bemötande har visats kunna förvärra ett självskadebeteende. Många med ett självskadebeteende har bemötts med kritik och känt skam över sitt beteende. Syfte: Syftet med denna studie var att belysa tonårsflickors upplevelser av bakomliggande orsaker till självskadebeteendet. Metod: Använd metod var kvalitativ innehållsanalys med induktiv ansats. Resultat: Ur analysen framträdde två kategorier: Utsatt för övergrepp och Känslostormarnas våld med fyra underkategorier Konklusion: Studien visar att övergrepp och känslostormar var bakomliggande orsaker och att flickorna hade svårigheter att hantera detta på egen hand. Sjuksköterskans svårigheter att bemöta tonårsflickorna med självskadebeteende kan relateras till kunskapsbrist. Studiens syfte uppnåddes då tonårsflickornas upplevelser av bakomliggande orsaker till självskadebeteendet belysts i resultatet, vilket kan ge ökad förståelse för sjuksköterskor i framtida vårdmöten. / Background: Self-destructive behavior is a growing phenomenon amongst teenagers in the world. It has proven to be more girls than boys who self-harm. Psychological illness is an individual perception and thus difficult to define but often results in a great personal suffering, where a constant struggle between good and evil, desire and suffering is going on within the person. A nurse shall promote health and alleviate suffering, and a negative attitude has been shown to worsen the self-destructive behavior. Many of the people with a self-harm behavior has been met with criticism and felt ashamed of their behavior. Aim: The aim of his study was to shed light on teenage girls’ experience of underlying causes of the self-destructive behavior.  Method: The used method was a qualitative content analysis with an inductive approach.. Results: From the analysis of the data material emerged two categories emerged: The victim of abuse and the violence of emotional storms with four subcategories. Conclusion: The study shows that abuse and emotional storms were the underlying causes and that the girls had difficulties to handle this on their own. Nurses have difficulties to meet teenage girls with a self-destructive behavior related to their lack of knowledge. The study's aim was achieved when the teenage girls' experience of what is behind the self-harm was highlighted in the results which may increase understanding of nurses in future treatment sessions.

Thesis (MA (Psychology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / Body image and dating relationships are two of the most important topics in the lives of the female adolescents. Yet, not much South African research has been done on either of these themes with adolescent populations and no research could be found to investigate a possible relationship between these two important aspects, both internationally and locally. Therefore, the primary aim of this study was to investigate the potential relationship between female adolescents’ body image and their romantic relationships. Specifically, the aim was to determine if a relationship existed between participants’ self-rated attractiveness and body dissatisfaction, and their relationship status and romantic relationship satisfaction. There were two secondary aims. The first was to investigate how aspects like participants’ culture, age and body size were related to their body image and the second was to determine if aspects like participants’ culture, age and body size were related to their relationship status and satisfaction with their romantic relationships. Questionnaires were distributed to Afrikaans- and English- speaking White girls, Afrikaansspeaking Coloured girls and isiXhosaspeaking girls at four urban, coeducational, secondary schools and 511 questionnaires were completed. Participants selfreported their height and weight, self-rated their facial and bodily attractiveness on a 7- point scale, and completed two measures of body dissatisfaction: the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) Body Dissatisfaction subscale (Garner, Olmstead, & Polivy, 1983) and the Body Cathexis Scale (BCS) (Secord & Jourard, 1953). Participants also indicated their current relationship status using five categories: has never dated anyone, not dating anyone currently, casually dating one or more people, dating one person exclusively, and engaged or planning to marry, and completed the Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS) (Hendrick, 1988), a measure of relationship satisfaction. With regard to the primary aim of the study, results show that there were significant relationships between some of the measures of body image and relationship status for the total sample. In general, it was found that the girls who were involved in exclusive relationships at the time of the study had better body image than the girls who were not. Yet, results for this relationship were different for the different cultural and body mass index groups. With regard to the relationship between body image and relationship satisfaction, the Body Cathexis Scale scores significantly predicted participants’ satisfaction with their romantic relationships. Yet both weight and culture were also found to play a role in the relationship between body image and relationship satisfaction. With regard to the secondary aims of the study, culture was found to be related to body image, body mass index, relationship status and relationship satisfaction, while age played a role in participants’ body mass index and relationship status, and body mass index was related to body image, but not to relationship status and relationship satisfaction. Therefore, participants’ culture and body mass index were significant with regard to body image and romantic relationships, but was also found to play a significant role in the relationship between these two.

During the eighteen century there was a significant growth in patchwork materially and linguistically. It was the century when patchwork was stitched at all levels of society and has been identified as the time when patchwork moved out from the small domestic world of decorative sewing into the wider public sphere, leaving behind other needlework as it became embedded in the language and writing of the period. This research examines the social and cultural contexts relating to the making of patchwork in the long eighteenth century and in doing so contributes to the story of women and their material lives in the period. Noted for its longevity, surviving as a widespread practice across the century, patchwork was a democratic needlework that was practiced by any woman capable of stitching a variety of fabric pieces together to make a larger whole. A widespread understanding of the term and familiarity with the practice enabled it to be employed successfully in the literal and figurative language of the period. Patchwork was heralded as a fashionable activity in the early eighteenth century, but was later used to represent the ideal of the moral and capable housewife, devoted to her sewing skills and thrifty in her practice. The figurative style of the period allowed the simultaneous use of the word in differing ways so that patchwork was used both positively and negatively in literature, drama, critical review, political debate and theoretical discourse.

Inledning: Fysisk aktivitet minskar risken för många sjukdomar. Många barn når inte upp till rekommendationerna för fysisk aktivitet, och flickor är mindre fysiskt aktiva än pojkar. Syftet med litteraturöversikten är att identifiera orsakerna bakom att flickor i åldern 5-16 år är mindre fysiskt aktiva än pojkar. Metod: Studien är en litteraturöversikt som innefattar tio artiklar. Sökning efter artiklar gjordes i olika relevanta databaser, och därefter granskades och analyserades artiklarna. Resultat: Vanligast förekommande orsaker till flickors lägre fysiska aktivitetsnivå i jämförelse med pojkars delades in i följande teman: upplevd kompetens, konflikt, kroppsuppfattning, vänner och påverkan från familj. Diskussion: Flickor blir retade av pojkar och har en uppfattning av att inte vara tillräckligt bra på grund av pojkars beteende. Familj och vänner kan utgöra både motivationsfaktor och hinder. Skolan är en viktig arena för interventioner inom fysisk aktivitet med tanke på tiden barn spenderar där. Synen på flickor och fysisk aktivitet behöver förändras, och interventioner behöver göras på många olika nivåer i samhället. Nyckelord: Fysisk aktivitet, flickor, upplevd kompetens, jämställdhet, folkhälsa

BACKGROUND: Social self-concept is a foundational construct in the healthy development of early adolescent girls; however, few gender-specific social self-concept interventions exist to support adolescent girls' development. OBJECTIVES: The overarching goal of the dissertation was to enhance the design, delivery, and evaluation of the Growing Girls Program. To achieve this, three distinct yet complimentary aims were established, to: (1) identify best practices in existing social self-concept interventions, (2) evaluate the effect of the current Growing Girls Program on early adolescent girls' social self-concept, and (3) identify gender-specific messages that early adolescent girls interpret from print media. METHODS: The dissertation employs a mixed-methods design, integrating findings from a systematic review of social self-concept interventions, content analysis of parent focus groups (n=4) and interviews (n=11), quantitative analysis of participant questionnaires (n=40) and visual content analysis of adolescent created collages (n=20). RESULTS: The results by specific aim illustrated: 1) the value of interventions that are: implemented in the school setting, developmentally and culturally appropriate, informed by theory, led by well-trained and supported facilitators, and implemented for 12 weeks to 6 months in duration, 2) that the evaluation of the Growing Girls Program provided promising evidence for its future implementation; and 3) that early adolescent girls perceived media messages to promote the importance of physical beauty, sex-appeal, cosmetic use, confidence, designer brands, perfect bodies and health. CONCLUSIONS: This study contributes to the improvement of the Growing Girls Program, and thereby to the practice of promoting early adolescent girls' social self-concept. Findings illustrate the lack of interventions focused on social self-concept and the challenges of adequately conceptualizing and measuring the construct. Therefore, the enhancement of the gender-specific Growing Girls Program fills an important gap in the social self-concept development literature. RECOMMENDATIONS: The Growing Girls Program should retain current practices assumed to be associated with its success, including its developmentally appropriate, gender specific, 22-week curriculum, its school-based setting, its use of trained and well-supported program facilitators, and it fidelity tracking. To improve, the program should 1) add lessons on the subjects of physical beauty, sex appeal, and the need to appear confident, 2) reduce levels of attrition, and 3) enhance its evaluation practices by including a comparison group, utilizing alternative self-report social self-concept measures, and including a follow up post-intervention.

Youth gangs, so-called Maras, in Central America have for a long time been one of the major factors contributing to the great amount of organized crime and violence in the Central American countries. The citizens in this region are exposed to violence and other crimes from the gangs on a daily basis. The vast amount of teens joining but also being forced to join the gangs is due to the high levels of poverty in the countries. Becoming a member in a gang is often seen as the only option to make a living. The study focuses on three countries in Central America: El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras. The reason why the author chose these three countries is because they are the ones with the highest youth gang activity in the region as well as the ones who have faced and still are facing high levels of violence and corruption. They have all faced political, economic, and social challenges after civil wars and increasing drug trafficking in the region. The method used in the study is qualitative through an analysis of secondary sources on young women in youth gangs. The material is analyzed from a gender perspective and also power and social control theory. The maras mainly recruit teen boys, but also young girls and women. Teen girls are in some cases forced to join the gangs but many times they join the gangs as self- protection from other local maras. The young girls are used for different tasks and duties while in the gang, but also face abuse by being taken advantage of in a male dominated environment. The essay focuses on the role of young women in gangs. The research questions are: why the young girls join the gangs? What are their roles in the gangs? Are their roles differentiate to the mens?  It is important to observe how the youth gangs function, reflect the patriarchal structures of society in general which has created differences between the sexes where males are seen as superior to females, which also is evident in criminal youth gangs. The essay shows that the main reasons why young women join gangs are because they are looking for a safe environment due to lacking support and safety at home. The young women’s roles in the gang differentiate from the men in the way that they are assigned tasks according to traditional gender roles where the women are expected to do domestic tasks and excluded from some of the gang activities because of their gender.

Thesis (PhD (Sport Science))—University of Stellenbosch, 2008. / The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of two different types of movement programs on movement competence, self-esteem and resiliency in adolescent girls from a low-socio economic environment. A non-equivalentcontrol-group design was followed. A total of N=63 girls from similar socioeconomic environments between the ages of 13-14 participated in the study. The subjects were divided into three groups. The pre-tests and post-tests were administered to all groups. Four motor fitness/motor ability tests were selected to gather data about movement competence. The Self-Perception Profile for Children (Harter, 1985) was used to measure self-esteem and the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (Connor & Davidson, 2003) was used to measure resiliency. Only two of the groups received intervention programs. One group received 20 sessions in an expressive dance movement program called Biodanza and the other intervention group received 20 sessions in self-defence.

Dissertation (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study explored the potential of competitive games and cooperative games as means for teaching adolescent girls some of the concepts that support cooperation. Hellison's (1995) levels for teaching responsibility were used as guidelines for selecting specific teaching strategies. The intervention consisted of a theme-oriented intervention programme presented to two experimental groups. One group (n = 9) participated in a games programme that consisted of competitive activities and the other group (n = 9) participated in a games programme that consisted of cooperative activities. The experimental groups were presented with theme-oriented lessons based on four concepts that support cooperation: sportsmanship, communication, trust and responsibility. A control group (n = 18) was also identified and used for statistical comparisons. In order to set a context for this study, background information was gathered using a questionnaire to determine how girls from the school (N = 194) felt about competitive games and sports. Three measurement instruments were used to collect data. The assessment of how the girls at the school felt about competitive games and sport was completed, using Gill & Deeter's (1988) Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ). Pre- and posttesting of the girls in the experimental groups also included the SOQ. Harter's (1985) Self-perception Profile was used to measure perceptions of perceived social acceptance. Soudan and Everett's (1981) 24-item questionnaire was used to determine any changes in how the girls in the experimental groups perceived the benefits of participation in physical activity. Results of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire for High School Girls (N = 194) indicate that the girls like competitive activities and enjoy competing, but for them, it is more important to set personal goals in competitive games than it is to win. Following the comparison between pre- and post-test data, it was concluded that the theme-oriented competitive games programme had an effect on how the girls feel about participation in games and sports. They became significantly less competitive in their orientation. No changes were noted in their perceived social acceptance. A significant increase in their perception that participation in sport and physical activity has social benefits as well as benefits in preparing them for a career/job were noted. The theme-oriented cooperative games programme also had a significant effect on how the girls feel about participation in games and sports. The competitive nature and win orientation of the girls participating in the cooperative games programme significantly decreased. No changes were noted in their social acceptance. There was a significant increase in their perception that participation in sport and physical activity has health and fitness benefits. Results on comparing the groups indicate that the perceived athletic competence of the competitive group increased significantly when compared to the cooperative group. No other changes were noted. A themeoriented approach to teaching children about cooperation in a competitive and/or cooperative environment seems to be an effective strategy. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie het die potensiaal nagevors van kompeterende spele en koëperatiewe spele as maatstaf vir die aanleer van sommige van die konsepte wat samewerking ondersteun. Hellison (1995) se vlakke vir die aanleer van verantwoordelikheid is gebruik as riglyne vir die seleksie van spesifieke onderrigstrateg ieë. Die intervensie het bestaan uit 'n tema-geërienteerde intervensieprogram wat aan twee eksperimentele groepe voorgelê is. Een groep (n = 9) het aan 'n speleprogram deelgeneem wat bestaan het uit kompeterende aktiwiteite en die ander groep (n = 9) het aan 'n speleprogram deelgeneem wat uit koëperatiewe aktiwiteite bestaan. Tema-geërienteerde lesse wat op die volgende vier konsepte wat samewerking ondersteun gebaseer is, is aan die eksperimentele groepe voorgelê: sportmanskap, kommunikasie, vertroue en verantwoordelikheid. 'n Kontrolegroep (n = 18) is ook geïdentifiseer en gebruik vir statistiese vergelyking. Om 'n konteks vir hierdie studie daar te stel is agtergrondinligting met behulp van 'n vraelys ingesamel om vas te stel hoe meisies van die skool (n = 194) gevoel het oor kompeterende spele en sport. Drie meetinstrumente is gebruik om data in te samel. Die assessering oor hoe die meisies gevoel het oor kompeterende spele en sport is voltooi deur van Gill & Deeter se (1988) Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) gebruik te maak. Pre- en post-toetsing van die meisies in die eksperimentele groepe is ook in die SOQ ingesluit. Harter (1985) se Self-perception Profile is gebruik om die persepsies van waarneembare sosiale aanvaarding te meet. Soudan en Everett (1981) se 24-item vraelys is gebruik om enige veranderinge te bepaaloor hoe die meisies in die eksperimentele groepe die voordele van deelname aan fisieke aktiwiteit ervaar het. Resultate van die Sportoriëntasie-vraelys vir Hoërskoolmeisies (n = 194) het aangedui dat die meisies kompeterende aktiwiteite en kompetisie geniet, maar dat dit vir hulle belangriker is om persoonlike doelwitte te stel in kompeterende spele as wat dit is om te wen. Na afloop van die vergelyking tussen pre- en post-toetsdata, is daar bevind dat die tema-georienteerde kompeterende speleprogram 'n effek gehad het op die meisies se gevoeloor deelname aan spele en sport. Daar was 'n beduidende afname in hul kompeterende oriëntasie. Geen veranderinge is gemerk in hul waarneembare sosiale aanvaarding nie. 'n Beduidende toename is opgemerk in hul persepsie dat deelname aan sport en fisieke aktiwiteit sosiale voordele sowel as voordele vir die voorbereiding van 'n loopbaan/werk inhou. Die tema-georienteerde kooperatiewe speleprogram het ook 'n beduidende effek gehad op hoe die meisies oor deelname aan spele en sport voel. Die kompeterende aard en wenoriëntasie van die meisies wat aan kooperatiewe speleprogram deelgeneem het, het beduidend afgeneem. Geen veranderinge is in hul sosiale aanvaarding opgemerk nie. Daar was 'n beduidende toename in hul persepsie dat deelname aan sport en fisieke aktiwiteit gesondheids- en fiksheidsvoordele inhou. Resultate wat die groepe vergelyk, dui aan dat die waarneembare atletiese vermoë van die kompeterende groep beduidend toegeneem het in vergelyking met die kooperatiewe groep. Geen ander veranderinge is opgemerk nie. 'n Tema-georienteerde benadering tot hoe om kinders oor samewerking in 'n kompeterende en/of kooperatiewe omgewing te leer, blyk 'n effektiewe strategie te wees.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study aimed to create an elaborate model that can shed light on the intra- and interpersonal functioning of middle childhood and early adolescent South African girls in child care. Data used included: 1) measures of self-concept that was measured by The Beck Youth Inventories: Self-concept inventory for Youths (Beck, Beck & Jolly, 2001), 2) a qualitative indication of perceived attachment towards a mother figure and 3) biographical data provided by the social workers associated with the children's homes that participated in the study. Participants included 70 girls between the ages of 9 and 14, of which 35 were assigned to the Children's Home Group. The Control Group comprised of the rest of the participants. Regression analysis, correlation measurement and the calculation of the significance of the differences between groups were used to test hypotheses. Results indicated that perceived attachment to a mother figure is a significant mediator of selfconcept, but that factors related to age seemed to have the most significant mediating effect during the developmental stages of middle childhood and early adolescence. The results were used to combine and elaborate on existing theories of intra- and interpersonal functioning in order to suggest a model that attempts to explain the functioning of South African girls in child-care in more depth. Implications for these findings are discussed. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie ondersoek was om 'n gedetailleerde modelop te stel wat lig kan werp op die intra- en interpersoonlike funksionering van middel-kinderjarige en adolessente dogters in kindersorg in Suid-Afrika. Die data wat gebruik is, sluit in: 1) meetings van selfkonsep wat gemeet is deur die Beck Youth Inventories: Self-concept inventory for Youths (Beck, Beck & Jolly, 2001), 2) 'n kwalitatiewe indikasie van dogters se persepsie oor die binding tussen hulle en hulonderskeie moeders, asook. 3) biografiese data wat verskaf is deur die maatskaplike werkers wat geassosieer was met die kinderhuise wat deelgeneem het. Die deelnemers het bestaan uit 'n groep van 70 dogters tussen die ouderdomme van 9 en 14 jaar. Die helfte van die deelnemers het vanuit die kinderhuise gekom terwyl die res van die deelnemers die kontrolegroep gevorm het. Regressie analises, korrelasie metings en die berekening van die beduidendheid van verskille tussen groepe is gebruik om hipoteses te toets. Die resultate het daarop gedui dat dogters se persepsie van die kwaliteit van die binding tussen hulle en hul moeders, wel 'n beduidende mediator van self-konsep is gedurende middle-kinderjare en adolessensie is, maar dat faktore wat verband hou met ouderdom, die grootste mediërende effek het op self-konsep gedurende hierdie ontwikkelingsfases. Op grond van die resultate is 'n model saamgestel wat 'n voortbouing is op bestaande teorie, maar poog om meer lig te werp op die intra en interpersoonlike funksionering van Suid-Afrikaanse dogters in kindersorg te verduilik. Die implikasies hiervan word bespreek.

Thesis (MScSportSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: There is a universal concern about the rapid decline in the physical activity levels of children, particularly adolescent girls. There is evidence of an increase in juvenile obesity that is associated with numerous health risks. During adolescence the majority of psychological problems associated with obesity stem from a disturbance in the self-concept. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between fitness, body composition and physical selfperception of a sample of 167 adolescent girls (14-17 years), and to compare these results with the results of similar studies from around the world. The results show a significant positive relationship (r = 0.47; P < 0.01) between levels of cardiorespiratory fitness and physical self-perception and significant negative relationships between percentage body fat and physical self-perception (r = -0.35; p < 0.01), as well as body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness (r = -0.47; P < 0.01). The results clearly illustrate the current prevalence of obesity associated with low cardiorespiratory fitness (due to inactivity) and low selfperception. The importance of being physically active for the physical and psychological well-being of adolescents is a valuably preventive and treatment measure. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die bekommernis oor die toenemende afname in die fisieke aktiwiteitsvlakke van kinders, veral adolessente meisies, blyk 'n universele verskynsel te wees. Bewyse is gevind van 'n toename in obesiteit by kinders wat verband hou met verskeie gesondheidsrisikos. Tydens adolessensie word die meeste sielkundige probleme wat verband hou met obesiteit deur 'n versteuring in die selfkonsep veroorsaak. Die doel van hierdie studie was om vas te stel wat die verband tussen fiksheid, liggaamsamestelling en fisieke selfpersepsie is. Die steekproef het bestaan uit 167 adolessente meisies (14 - 17 jaar oud) en hierdie resultate is vergelyk met die resultate van soortgelyke studies van regoor die wêreld. Die resultate toon 'n beduidend positiewe verband (r = 0.47; P < 0.01) tussen kardiorespiratoriese fiksheidsvlakke en fisieke selfpersepsie vlakke en beduidend negatiewe verbande tussen liggaamsvetpersentasie en selfpersepsie (r = -0.35; P < 0.01) sowel as liggaamsamestelling en kardiorespiratoriese fiksheid (r = -0.47; P < 0.01). Die resultate toon dat die voorkoms van obesiteit met lae kardiorespiratoriese fiksheid (as gevolg van 'n gebrek aan fisieke aktiwiteit) en lae selfpersepsie verband hou. Die belangrikheid van fisieke aktiwiteit vir die fisieke en sielkundige welstand van adolessente is 'n waardevolle voorkomende en behandelingsmetode.