Lenney (1977) concluded that achievement gender differences were predicted by females' lower self confidence and expectancies in competitive situations, identifying three variables that mediated female self confidence in achievement situations, (1) task appropriateness. (2) social comparison, and (3) feedback. The present study manipulated all three mediating variables with 240 undergraduate 18-25 year old female subjects with the pursuit rotor task that requires tracking a moving (40 rpm's) white light with a hand-held stylus for 60 seconds. Response measurement was based upon time on target. Subjects were tested over five trials while setting goals for each trial. Females were randomly assigned to a male appropriate, female appropriate, or gender neutral task condition, a competition or alone condition, and to one of four feedback conditions (no feedback, feedback about own performance only, feedback about own performance that provided the perception that subject was performing better than an opponent and/or average on each trial, or feedback about own performance that provided the perception that subject was performing poorer than an opponent and/or average on each of the five trials). Results from the 2 (social comparison) X 3 (task appropriateness) X 4 (feedback) ANOVA were contradictory to previous findings (Corbin, 1981; Petruzzello & Corbin, 1988) as females performed significantly better in competition than alone. Data support the conclusion that presentation of clear and unambiguous feedback enhanced female self-confidence (Corbin, 1981; Petruzzello & Corbin, 1988; Lenney, 1977). Data also provide null findings for the task appropriateness condition which contradicts the previous research (Corbin, 1981; Lenney, 1977) in that females perceiving the task as male appropriate did not exhibit less self-confidence and perform poorer than when the task was perceived as either female appropriate or gender neutral. Conclusions reflect methodological differences from previous research and changes in gender role identification that have significantly impacted on female self-confidence and performance in competitive situations.

The present study examined Garland's cognitive mediation theory of goal setting in a three-minute basketball shooting task. The effects of different goal conditions were also investigated along with achievement motivation and self-motivation as mediating constructs of performance. Subjects (N=150) were males and females, assigned to one of five goal conditions: "do your best", easy, moderate, hard, and improbable. Results indicated no performance differences between the different goal conditions, with subjects in the "do your best" condition performing as well as subjects in the other goal conditions. Results also yielded partial support for Garland's cognitive mediation theory with task goals influencing performance through its influence on performance expectancy. Furthermore, a negative correlation between achievement motivation and performance was found for females in the improbable goal condition and a positive correlation was found between self-motivation and performance for females in the easy goal condition.

Determining the factors that contribute to mental toughness development in athletes has become a focus for researchers as coaches, athletes, and others extol its influence on performance success. In this study we examined a model of mental toughness development based on achievement goal theory, assessing the relations between motivational climates, goal orientations, and mental toughness. Five hundred ninety-nine varsity athletes, representing 13 different sports from six different high schools in a southwestern United States school district, participated in the study. Athletes completed self-report measures assessing parent, peer, and coach motivational climates, goal orientations, and their mental toughness. Initially, I examined the measurement model and found it fit the data well both in the exploratory (SRMR = .06; CFI = .94) and confirmatory (SRMR = .06; CFI = .95) samples. Second, the structural model was examined and found to fit the data well in both the exploratory (SRMR = .08; CFI = .93) and confirmatory samples (SRMR = .07, CFI = .95). Parent task-involving climate, (β = .55; p < .05) and coach task-involving climate (β = .32; p < .05), but not peer task-involving climate (β = .05), were associated with task goal orientation (R2 = .57). Ego goal orientation (R2 = .32) was explained by peer ego-involving climate (β = .15; p < .05), parent ego-involving climate (β = .39; p < .05), and coach ego-involving climate (β = .16; p < .05). Finally, only task goal orientation (β = .75; p < .05) was related to the athletes’ mental toughness (R2 = .56); the ego goal orientation pathway was not significant (β = .04). These results speak to the potential positive influence of parents and coaches on athletes’ mental toughness through their endorsement of task-involving messages and pursuits leading to the development of a task goal orientation.

by Wong Ho Yan Fanny. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2002. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 47-57). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / TITLE PAGE --- p.i / ACKNOWLEDGEMENT --- p.ii / TABLE OF CONENTS --- p.iii / LIST OF TABLE AND FIGURES --- p.iv / ABSTRACT --- p.v / 論文摘要 --- p.vi / Chapter CHAPTER 1 - --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter CHAPTER 2 - --- Method --- p.25 / Chapter CHAPTER 3 - --- Results --- p.29 / Chapter CHAPTER 4 - --- Discussion --- p.37 / RERERENCES --- p.46

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the mediating effect of two types of goal setting conditions (self-set and assigned set goals) on exercise intensity, exercise efficacy and perceived physical ability of efficacious older adults participating in a fitness program. In addition, this study examined the extent to which the four sources of self-efficacy influenced walking self-efficacy and perceived physical ability. Sixteen older adults, who were participating in a fitness program, were randomly assigned to either the self-set or assigned set goal condition. The self-set group selected an exercise intensity (i.e., target heart rate range) each week prior to the walking bout, while the assigned set group were designated an exercise intensity (i.e., target heart rate range) each week before their walking session. The same walking duration was implemented for both goal groups throughout the eight-week goal-setting program. Heart rate monitors were used to collect information on exercise intensity. In week one, walking self-efficacy (WSE), exercise intensity and perceived physical ability (PPA) were collected. For weeks two through seven WSE, exercise intensity, goal setting post-questionnaire (only for the assigned group) were collected. In week eight, WSE, PPA, exercise intensity, and sources of self-efficacy were collected. The results revealed that goal condition had no significant effect on exercise intensity, perceived physical ability, and walking self-efficacy. However, this study assisted participants in becoming more aware of their heart rate (exercise intensity) by observing their heart rate monitors. / School of Physical Education

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Illinois State University, 2000. / Title from title page screen, viewed July 31, 2006. Dissertation Committee: Steven Landau (chair), Jeffrey Kahn, Becky Ladd, Vicky Morgan, David Barone. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 87-93) and abstract. Also available in print.

A large body of evidence suggests physical activity is inversely associated with several cardio-metabolic risk factors among children and adolescents. Despite these health benefits, a majority of youth are not meeting the physical activity guidelines set forth by the USDHHS. Schools have been identified as an ideal vehicle for interventions; however, research evidence indicates school-based interventions are not effective at increasing outside of school physical activity. Goal setting may be a potential effective strategy for increasing physical activity among youth; however no previous studies have examined the effects of goal setting on cardiorespiratory fitness and physical activity in middle school students. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the effects of a S.M.A.R.T. goal setting and self-monitoring intervention on fitness and physical activity in middle school students. Two middle schools in Tallahassee, FL participated in this study. One school served as the intervention and the other served as a delayed intervention measurement only control. The students in the intervention school completed a one-time S.M.A.R.T. goal setting lesson. During the lesson, students were taught the definition of a goal, the importance of goal setting, and how to set S.M.A.R.T. goals. As part of the lesson, students completed a S.M.A.R.T. goal setting worksheet. The objectives of the worksheet activity were to teach students the concepts of S.M.A.R.T. goal setting and to apply this knowledge by creating personal fitness goals. Student fitness goals were entered into an interactive website that acted as a self-monitoring tool. Before and after the intervention, participating students completed a survey assessing student demographics, physical activity, and physical activity self-efficacy. Cardiorespiratory fitness levels, assessed by the PACER test, were also measured pre and post. Betweengroup differences in post-test scores, adjusted for baseline levels, were assessed for statistical significance using ANCOVA. Additional covariates included gender, race/ethnicity, grade level and weight status. After adjustment for baseline levels, students in the intervention school exhibited significantly higher PACER laps in comparison to the control school ((F[subscript (1,257)] = 58.0) p<0.0001)). The PACER scores in intervention school increased from 40.6 laps to 45.9 laps while the PACER scores in the comparison school decreased. There were no significant between-group differences for physical activity or self-efficacy Although these results require replication in larger studies using a group randomized study design and objective measures of physical activity, the results suggest that teaching students about S.M.A.R.T. goal setting may be a potentially effective strategy for increasing fitness in middle school students and worthy of further investigation / Graduation date: 2013

Project (B.S.)--James Madison University, 2009. / Includes bibliographical references.

A widespread and persistent memory error that people commit on a daily basis is the post-completion error (PCE; i.e., forgetting to complete the final step of a procedural task). PCEs occur in the railroad industry when a locomotive conductor changes the direction of a rail switch but fails to report this change. This particular error could contribute to unsafe conditions as another train traveling on the same track could derail. Although training can help reduce some of the factors leading to unsafe conditions on the rail, research has demonstrated that PCEs are different from other errors of omission in that they cannot be eliminated through training, which makes them a difficult problem to address. Therefore, there is a need to explore new remedial actions designed to reduce PCEs. The current study investigated the effectiveness of a theoretically motivated intervention at reducing PCEs in trainyard operations, where making these errors could be life-threatening. Twenty-eight undergraduates completed trainyard tasks within a high-fidelity simulator. Each participant received the behavioral intervention in one block and no intervention in another. Specifically, participants were required to perform an additional task designed to remind participants of the post-completion (PC) step. The intervention significantly reduced PCE rates in the context of trainyard operations, on average, by 65%. We discuss implications of these results on reducing trainyard accidents, and how this outcome can contribute to the literature on the cause of PCEs.

This study aimed to investigate the effects that a specifically tailored goal-setting program would have on two motocross racers in terms of their self-efficacy and motivation, as well as the process of designing this intervention. This case-study approach involved a mixed methods approach, consisting of pre-intervention and post-intervention assessments, interviews, and performance profiles. The tools used include Vealey’s (1986) Competitive Orientation Inventory (COI), Gill and Deeter’s (1988) Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ), performance profiles, and semi-structured interviews. The goal-setting intervention lasted a total of five weeks. The results from the preintervention and post-intervention assessments were compared to determine whether any changes in motivation or self-efficacy occurred during the intervention. For the first participant, significant changes in both motivation and self-efficacy were present in addition to significant changes in competitive orientation. For the second participant, there were no significant changes in either motivation or self-efficacy. However, for the second participant there was also no change in competitive orientation. Findings suggest that the focus and competitive orientation of an athlete have a significant influence on the types of goals set, and consequently on positive changes in motivation, confidence, and self-efficacy. The influence of the competitive orientation in athletes also highlighted the importance of attaining a balance between performance and outcome goal-related activities. It was also discovered through qualitative assessment that this program is suitable for particular groups of athletes such as those who are injured, display an external locus of causality or are otherwise not performing at their prime.