This thesis seeks to understand just what governance looks like to practitioners themselves and how it works in practice. It recognises the need for modern executive and political leaders to provide strong place shaping leadership, in a context where resources are tight, outsourcing is viewed as a means to an end and joint working is considered essential to deliver complex cross-cutting policy objectives. As such, it will appeal to the wider local government community. The departure point for the thesis is the crisis of social democracy identified as 'overload' in the mid 1970s and the New Right policy prescription of privatisation/marketisation proposed to resolve that. the subsequent hollowing out of the state together with the interlinked nature of public policy (and the introduction of changing governance forms such as combined authorities) only served to made governance landscape even more complex. The thesis uses interpretive methodology to conduct a thematic analysis of governance and accountability using two in depth case studies in which elected members and officials have participated. the thesis makes a contribution to knowledge by concluding that Governance has three strands to it - Place Shaping, Service Delivery and Community Leadership. It is considered complex for a number of reasons ranging from layered reform and incremental policy making on the one hand to the need to work in partnership to achieve complex public policy objectives on the other. Notwithstanding recent reforms, the architecture of governance in the UK remains highly centralised. This has an adverse impact on economic performance. Devolution of powers and funding to local authorities that have the capacity to cope with them, should be coupled with Institutional reforms to create a strategic level of governance designed to facilitate infrastructure provision, economic renewal and joined up public service delivery. Keeping these arrangements accountable is of central importance and it is concluded that this requires as a minimum, the effective operation of the statutory Scrutiny function. This requires that elected members are provided with a toolkit in the form of a positive operating culture, appropriate statutory powers and sufficient funding. In addition however, there is a need to consider how to broaden democratic engagement with a view to increasing levels of political participation, so as to develop a more active notion of citizenship going forward.

This doctoral research focuses on the relationship between civil society, collective action and the victims’ social movements of the Colombian armed conflict. It analyses the communicative and expressive dimensions of victims’ collective action as a mechanism to restore a sense of citizenship. It shows how collective belonging is constructed through processes of memory, recognition and solidarity in the midst of armed conflicts. It introduces the concept of communicative citizenship field in which emotions and affection act as a catalyst to generate collective actions for counterpublic groups in armed conflict societies transforming their victim status into an active citizenship condition. The case study of this research is Eastern Antioquia in Colombia, particularly the victims’ social movement of this Colombian region, and through a participative action research approach and developing a set of qualitative strategies, this research explores (together with the studied groups) the communicative and expressive resources they can access to obtain symbolic, cultural and political power and to act effectively within fragile public spheres. A key objective here is to understand what kind of citizen processes these collective communicative actions and strategies can open up within contexts of armed conflict and how these practices have been affecting the structure and shape of the regional and local public spheres of Eastern Antioquia in the last seventeen years. Furthermore, this doctoral research aims to present non-official narratives about the Colombian armed conflict, using the victims’ perspective to understand the dynamics of contestation in the construction of memory, recognition and solidarity during the conflict, as well as in the claiming of public and conflict‐related spaces and the construction of victims’ collective identity as civilians before the cessation of violence. This study finally argues that the communicative citizenship field is part of a new research agenda to better understand, analyse and describe contemporary processes of collective action of victims’ social movements in armed conflicts and post-armed conflict societies.

The basic rationale of this research was to identify as many relevant factors and issues as possible that have enabled Sierra Leonean women emerging from a brutal civil/rebel war in Sierra Leone to develop resilience( “To spring back into shape” –Oxford English Dictionary) and Adversity-Activated Development(AAD) as they resettled, integrated and became part of their new communities. Their resilience enabled them to adapt successfully in the face of threats and disaster into a new society, environment and community in the United Kingdom (UK). This was despite the fact that they had endured many different types of adversity, including sexual and psychological violence during the civil/rebel war in Sierra Leone. The research examined various relevant and contributing factors, including personal, professional, family and community circumstances, status, attitudes, religious belief systems, social networks as well as behaviours. It also investigated the unique way that Sierra Leonean refugee women (a) experienced adversity (connected with the civil war in Sierra Leone), (b) addressed adversity at different stages (e.g. during the war, their flight, their transition through various, countries, refugee camps and also during their final phase of resettlement in the UK), and (c) integrated into their new communities. This research is based on the theoretical framework developed by Papadopoulos who: (a) Mapped out the four stages of the refugee experiences, i.e. Anticipation, Devastating Events, Survival and Adjustment (Papadopoulos, 1999), and (b) Differentiated the range of responses to adversity by using the Trauma / Adversity Grid that includes not only the negative responses but also the retained positives (i.e. resilient dimensions) as well the new positives that were the direct result of being exposed to adversity, that he termed Adversity-Activated development (AAD). (Papadopoulos 2004, 2007). The research followed a qualitative research methodology and took into account a gendered perspective on the views and personal experiences of Sierra Leonean refugee women living and working in the United Kingdom (U.K.). The data was collected through in-depth interviews, semi-structured questionnaires, group meetings and individual sessions with the participants, who are all Sierra Leonean refugee women living and working in the United Kingdom (UK). These participants had all been granted full refugee status. They were given time to complete questionnaires and they were also interviewed about their life histories using the heuristic method, theory and approach. This allowed the participants and the researcher to experience self-awareness and self-knowledge throughout the research process, while understanding the phenomenon of the factors that led to the resilience of these Sierra Leonean refugee women. Particular attention was paid to understanding the cultural framework (the use of traditional and cultural values and practices), coping mechanisms and capacities, integration and participation of these participants as well as to the wider psychosocial dimensions of their experience and how these women were able to adapt successfully to a completely new unknown environment, integrating and resettling into new ways of life in the United Kingdom (UK) despite all their traumatic experiences. The research also investigated the multidisciplinary nature of the care of refugees in general and how this relates to some of the specific issues affecting refugees, including their socio-economic development, human rights, cultural and traditional disorientation and dislocation, and sought to connect these to the loss of home, personal identity and community for refugees. The research is extremely topical, especially right now at this very moment in time when the world is facing an unparalleled crisis with migrant and refugees streaming into more developed countries, particularly in Europe. This refugee crisis created a lot of emotional responses in everybody, it touches the sensitivities of people, some react with fear and horror that their safe countries will be invaded by unruly and uneducated refugees that would burden their already economically stretched countries and others react with compassion wanting to open up their homes and welcome these troubled refugees who had to flee their unsafe countries looking for places of refuge. What happens in these situations, people see the refugees as a threat, as an additional burden and they cannot possibly see that these people may be in a position to help their host country and enable it to thrive. This research has shown that these Sierra Leonean women that came to the UK following the horrors of the civil war in their country certainly they did not prove to be a burden on the UK. On the contrary, they not only survived and supported each other but they also thrived and contributed to the development of the local communities where they settled. Therefore this research can be used as a proof that there is no justification to bring all the refugees under one umbrella and consider all of them as a burden to the host country. What this research also shows is that it is important to allow refugees tell their own story and help them digest their experiences and identify the various factors that contributed to them being able to survive and thrive.

Background: The managers of Zenith Medical Centre, a Nigerian hospital, desired to experiment a change to a process of evaluation that could improve training effectiveness for all stakeholders. Concern about evaluating training for effectiveness is not new. The past 50 years have witnessed a growing number of evaluation methods developed by scholars and practitioners to provide human resource development (HRD) professionals with alternatives for measuring training outcomes. However, investigation on the uses of evaluation data to improve training outcomes from the perspectives of divergent stakeholders is limited. Participatory evaluation (PE) through action research (AR) intervention was particularly considered as a viable means of improving training effectiveness by increased use of evaluation data. Aims of the Investigation: The aims of the intervention were to deepen insight and understanding of PE from the perspectives of stakeholders, practically implement a change of the evaluation system and produce new knowledge for the action research community. Design/Methodology/Approach: The action research approach was used from a social constructionist perspective to engage training stakeholders in the organization as participants. This perspective required working in the participatory action research (PAR) mode. Therefore, the project followed a cyclical process model (CPM) of the AR iterative process of constructing, planning, acting and evaluating. The CPM model was to accommodate the quality principles for using theory to both guide issue diagnosis and reflection on the intervention. Data on participatory evaluation were generated through focus groups and one-on-one interviews and analyzed using template analysis. Findings: By identifying and discussing their stakes, contributions and inducements in training, participants were able to reflect on their own learning, gain insight into their own work situation by sharing experiences and these facilitated peer and management support. The results were deeper insight into training evaluation; change in behavior and perceptions; and the use of quality data to improve training design, delivery and participation. The participatory process also enabled participants to learn self-direction and self-management by becoming aware of discussing problems or issues of concern to them in the workplace, group coherence and social support. Profoundly, all levels of stakeholders tried actively to change their working conditions by participating in action research activities. Implications: The study has implications for research and practice in three perspectives: First-person implications of deepening the researcher’s understanding and knowledge and providing professional development for his practice; second-person implications of deepening understanding and knowledge and providing improved day-to-day practice for the participants, practical solutions to the issue and organizational learning for the client; and third-person implication of providing specific knowledge for the wider action research community. Limitations: The research does not cover the political implications of the findings and opportunities they create for further research. It is limited to evaluation process while leaving out organizational decision making which is another factor affecting the utilization of evaluation data. Future studies should consider the question of what happens if the process of evaluation is right but the organizational politics or decision making structures hinders evaluation use.

This research examines the way in which people perceive heritage in living heritage places focusing on Greek traditional settlements. Despite the widely acknowledged idea of heritage as a social construct which may be understood via perceptions, our knowledge is still far from complete. The thesis particularly examines what is identified and valued as heritage, and why, and how conservation may affect these processes. It reveals that these are not three different aspects which can be explained through single independent factors alone, but they are interrelated forming people’s perceptions of heritage. The research indicates that the way in which people perceive heritage depends on a dynamic relationship across the identification, evaluation and conservation of heritage and on a multiplicity of influential factors behind these processes. Examining both experts’ and residents’ perceptions in six traditional settlements, the study indicates that heritage may be collectively and individually perceived, as evident through the similarities and differences among participants. The conceptual framework uses a qualitative perception-based approach in which the different aspects of perception are examined. It is found that this may contribute to the way in which perceptions of heritage may be examined in future research. In addition, the examination of both experts and residents’ perceptions adds to our incomplete knowledge about the extent to which these two groups understand the concept of heritage. This suggests that their distinction as often presented by other studies may be inadequate in explaining the way in which heritage is perceived. The study also addresses the gap between perceptions of heritage and perceptions of conservation, showing how conservation can affect the way in which lay people identify and value heritage. Overall, the thesis contributes rich empirical evidence to the conceptualisation of heritage as a social construct.

In the last decade personal genomics has been available to the public by direct-to-consumer marketing and sales. Different tests are available including single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping. SNP genotyping measures variation in nucleotides at specific points in deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) and can be analysed for information about ancestry, physical traits, risk of susceptibility to common complex diseases, genetic disorder carrier status and drug metabolism. SNPs have been analysed in human populations to associate variation with particular traits and common complex diseases, though the association data for disease risk is known to be unreliable. Some claim that direct-to-consumer genetic testing embodies a positive shift from medical hegemony to a market-oriented system while others are apprehensive about the lack of involvement of medical professionals and purchasers’ lack of understanding of probabilistic genetic information. These different views represent the dispute over SNP genotyping sold directly to the public that this study focuses on. My thesis explores this emerging technology using the Social Construction of Technology to investigate the experiences of a group of early adopters of the technology in the UK. I contrast their experiences with those of a group of UK genetic clinicians and examine participants’ respective understandings of SNP genotyping and its possible implications for the NHS. Whilst the data largely mirror the extant literature, they give an insight into the importance of social factors in influencing decision-making in relation to adopting or rejecting new technology. I discuss the data’s common themes of knowledge of genomics, the importance of social networks in understanding and engaging with new technologies, and personal versus collective medicine that characterise both groups’ experiences. To conclude I explore these themes in relation to the concept of biosociality.

This research investigates the phenomenon of violence through the lens of legitimised violence in ice hockey. The study locates ice hockey violence among the boundaries of criminality, where it is managed, organised and regulated outside of the criminal justice system. Here, violence is organised through an accepted code of conduct, widely understood and acknowledged by players, spectators and regulators. Violence is organised through the culture of hockey, situated in the spectacle of entertainment, the audience often displaying a carnivalesque thirst for violence. In sport, the criminological boundaries of violence are not set and enforced by criminal justice agencies; rather they are constructed, managed and mediated through the culture of the sport and an accepted code of behaviour. Reflecting on an extended ethnography of the culture of professional hockey, this thesis considers the ever-changing cultural climate of sanctioned violence in the sport. Through ethnographic observation and extensive visually-elicited interviews; cultural and social identity, motives of violent behaviour, and situated meanings of hockey players are uncovered in a manner that has historically not been prioritised within criminological research of this area. The process of legitimisation of this physical violence is formed and shaped not only by players engaging in the sport, but by cultural factors that exist beyond the confines of the rink. Informed by broad structural themes such as power, masculinity and finance; shared interactions on the ice are a small part of the wider accepted justifications for otherwise illegal acts of violence.

In this thesis I explore how gender features in the experiences of nursery age children in South Wales, using a new feminist materialist theoretical framework to inform an analysis that moves away from the binary separation of the social and material spheres. Drawing on a year of ethnographic data produced through participant observation in a state school nursery located in a deprived suburban area, I examine small ‘moments of emergence’ where gender is produced within the spaces and relationships of the nursery. I take a posthumanist stance to these emergences, where I do not locate the children themselves as agential producers of gender, but instead trace how human and non-human bodies and discourses work through space and time to delineate subjects and objects in gendering ways. Through doing so I shift focus from a purely social understanding of how gender roles are transferred to young children and instead encourage a holistic view of how environments, matter, and temporality combine with discourse through multiple and complex pathways to create continuous and flexible (re)iterations of gender emergence. I argue that it is only when we appreciate the complexity of these emergences that we can seek to positively impact children’s gender experiences in effective ways.

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This thesis consists of three self-contained research articles that empirically explore survival expectations of older populations and mortality amongst children. Chapter 1 examines methodological considerations in eliciting survival probabilities in India and tests their associations with known socioeconomic characteristics. Chapter 2 investigates the effect of a survey induced negative health information shock on survival expectations of older Britons. Chapter 3 estimates the causal effect of domestic violence on child mortality in India. The analysis uses the pilot study of the Longitudinal Ageing Study of India (LASI) in Chapter 1, the English Longitudinal Ageing Study (ELSA) in Chapter 2 and the Demographic Health Survey (DHS) in Chapter 3. The general timeframe of the analysis is 1991 to 2010. The findings in Chapter 1 suggests that it is feasible to elicit subjective survival expectations in a developing country context and that these expectations correlate in meaningful ways with previously known social and economic predictors. Chapter 2 finds that individuals update subjective survival expectations in response to new information in meaningful ways and in Chapter 3 I find evidence that suggest a causal and significantly positive relationship between domestic violence and child mortality.