No description available.

Neste trabalho, nós estudamos a hadroprodução de charmonium em experimentos de alvo fixo com os três modelos: modelo de singleto de cor (CSM), modelo de evaporação de cor (CEM) e QCD não relativística (NRQCD). Os ajustes feitos aos dados experimentais nos permitiram concluir que o CSM subestima o valor da seção de choque de produção dos estados de charmonium J/ e (2S) e, portanto, não descreve adequadamente a hadroprodução nestes casos. Os modelos CEM e NRQCD por outro lado descreveram satisfatoriamente os dados, no entanto, o fato dos resultados experimentais possuírem grandes incertezas não nos permitiu comparar diretamente os dois modelos e desta forma concluir qual dos dois é mais adequado. / ln this work we evaluate the charmonium production at fixed-target experiments with three different models: the color singlet model (CSM), the color evaporation model (CEM) and the nonrelativistic quantum chromodynamics (NRQCD). We verify that the results of CSM under-preditcs the production cross-section for J / and (2S), thus, in this case, the CSM is an inadequate model. In addition, we find that the two models CEM and NRQCD satisfactorily predict the charmonium hadro-production. However, due to the fact that the experimental uncertainties are large we can not compare the two models.

In this thesis we consider the phenomenology of the theory of strong interactions, Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD), with particular reference to the ongoing experimental program at the Large Hadron Collider in CERN. The current progress in precision measurement of Standard Model processes at the LHC experiments must be matched with corresponding precision in theoretical predictions, and to this end we present calculations at next-to-next-to-leading order in perturbation theory of observable quantities involving quarks and gluons, the strongly interacting particles of the SM. Such calculations form the most important class of corrections to observables and are vital if we are to untangle signals of New Physics from LHC data. We consider in particular the amplitudes for five parton interactions at 1- and 2-loop order and present full (in the 1-loop case) and partial (in the 2-loop case) analytic results in terms of rational functions of kinematic invariants multiplying a basis of master integrals. We address the problem of the solution of a system of integration-by-parts identities for Feynman integrals and demonstrate how some current difficulties may be overcome. We consider also the properties of the top quark, and present the NNLO, real-virtual contributions to the calculation of its decay rate. The results are presented as helicity amplitudes so that the full behaviour of the top spin is retained. These amplitudes constitute a necessary ingredient in the complete calculation of top quark pair production and decay at NNLO which will be an important theoretical input to many experimental analyses. Turning to a more phenomenological study, we consider the extraction of two important SM parameters, the top mass and the strong coupling constant, from measurements of top pair production at the ATLAS and CMS experiments. We compare with NNLO theory predictions and use a least-squares method to extract the values of the parameters simultaneously. We find best fit values of the parameters which are compatible with previous extractions performed using top data with the current world averages published by the Particle Data Group. We consider the issue of PDF choice and the circumstances in which a heavy quark can be considered a constituent of the proton. In particular, we look at the production of a Higgs boson in association with bottom quarks in four and five flavour schemes, in which the b may or may not be included in the initial state. We show that theoretical predictions in both schemes are well-motivated and appropriate in different scenarios, and moreover that results in the schemes are consistent provided a judicious choice of the renormalisation and factorisation scales is made. We suggest a typical scale choice motivated by considerations of consistency and find it to be somewhat lower than the typical hard scale of the process.

Neste trabalho, nós estudamos a hadroprodução de charmonium em experimentos de alvo fixo com os três modelos: modelo de singleto de cor (CSM), modelo de evaporação de cor (CEM) e QCD não relativística (NRQCD). Os ajustes feitos aos dados experimentais nos permitiram concluir que o CSM subestima o valor da seção de choque de produção dos estados de charmonium J/ e (2S) e, portanto, não descreve adequadamente a hadroprodução nestes casos. Os modelos CEM e NRQCD por outro lado descreveram satisfatoriamente os dados, no entanto, o fato dos resultados experimentais possuírem grandes incertezas não nos permitiu comparar diretamente os dois modelos e desta forma concluir qual dos dois é mais adequado. / ln this work we evaluate the charmonium production at fixed-target experiments with three different models: the color singlet model (CSM), the color evaporation model (CEM) and the nonrelativistic quantum chromodynamics (NRQCD). We verify that the results of CSM under-preditcs the production cross-section for J / and (2S), thus, in this case, the CSM is an inadequate model. In addition, we find that the two models CEM and NRQCD satisfactorily predict the charmonium hadro-production. However, due to the fact that the experimental uncertainties are large we can not compare the two models.

No description available.

Um novo estado, o Plasma Quark-Gluon (QGP), é formado quando a matéria comum formada por hadrons é submetida a condições extremas de temperatura e/ou densidade. Acredita-se que esse estado esteja presente nos primeiros momentos do universo e que seja relevante para entender propriedades da cromodinâmica quântica. O QGP é criado e caracterizado em aceleradores de partículas por meio de colisões de íons pesados. No entanto, uma estrutura alongada em psedorapidez (\\textit{double ridge}) na distribuição da correlação angular entre duas partículas foi encontrada em sistemas pequenos, como pp e p--Pb. Essa estrutura assemelha-se àquela observada nas colisões com íons pesados, onde sua interpretação está ligada ao comportamento coletivo que gera uma anisotropia azimutal nos produtos finais das colisões. Essa estrutura não era esperada em sistemas pequenos e sua interpretação física ainda está em debate, em particular no que diz respeito ao papel da hidrodinâmica e das condições iniciais. Uma medida para este efeito com partículas provenientes de quarks pesados ainda não haviam sido realizadas no momento em que este trabalho foi iniciado e esta medida poderia esclarecer questões sobre as diferentes interpretações. Os quarks pesados são uma sonda interessante caso o QGP seja formado devido ao seu tempo de formação inicial, reagindo a toda a evolução do meio. Neste trabalho, os quarks pesados são estudados medindo-se os elétrons provenientes dos decaimentos semi-leptônicos de hádrons que contêm quarks \\textit{charm} ou \\textit{beauty} e outros quarks leves (\\textit{open heavy flavor}). Os hadrons não são reconstruídos e usa-se um método de extração de sinal para remover elétrons de outras fontes. As correlações angulares de elétrons de decaimento de hadrons de quarks pesados com partículas carregadas em colisões de p--Pb a $\\sqrt{s_{m NN}}$ = 5,02 TeV medidos com o experimento ALICE em rapidez central ($ | \\eta | <0,8 $) são apresentadas. As distribuições mostram sinais de anisotropias azimutais que são quantificadas pelo coeficiente $ v_2 $. O $ v_2 $ para elétrons provenientes de quarks pesados é positivo com mais de $ 5 \\sigma $ de significância, fornecendo uma forte indicação de anisotropias azimutais similares ao \\textit{double ridge} para partículas contendo quarks pesados em colisões de alta multiplicidade de p--Pb. Esta é a primeira medida do $ v_2 $ para elétrons vindos de quarks pesados em colisões p--Pb. / A new state of mater, the Quark-Gluon Plasma (QGP), is formed when the ordinary hadronic matter is put under extreme temperature and/or density conditions. This state is believed to be present in the first moments of the universe and it is relevant to understand properties of the quantum chromodynamics. The QGP is created and characterized in particle accelerators by colliding heavy ions. However, a double-ridge long-range structure in the two-particle azimuthal correlation distribution was found in small systems, such as pp and p--Pb. This structure resembles the one observed in heavy-ion collisions, where its interpretation is linked to collective behavior that generates an azimuthal anisotropy in the final products of the collisions. This structure was not expected in small systems and its physical interpretation is still in debate, in particular regarding the role of hydrodynamics and initial conditions. A measurement for this effect with particles coming from heavy quarks was not done by the time this work started and this measurement could shed light into the different interpretations. Heavy quarks are an interesting probe in case the QGP is formed due to their early formation time, experiencing the whole evolution of the medium. In this work, heavy quarks are examined by measuring electrons originating from the semi-leptonic decays of hadrons that contain a heavy quark (charm or beauty) and other light quarks (open heavy flavor). The hadrons are not reconstructed and a signal extraction method is used to remove electrons from other sources. The azimuthal angular correlations of heavy-flavour hadron decay electrons with charged particles in p--Pb collisions at $\\sqrt{s_{m NN}}$ = 5.02 TeV measured with ALICE detector at mid-rapidity ($|\\eta| < 0.8$) are studied. The distributions show signs of azimuthal anisotropies which are quantified by the $v_2$ coefficient. The $v_2$ for heavy-flavor electrons is found to be positive with more than $5\\sigma$ significance, providing very strong indication of long-range azimuthal anisotropies for heavy-flavour particles in high multiplicity p--Pb collisions. This is the first measurement of the $v_2$ for electrons coming from heavy-flavor hadron decays in p--Pb collisions.

Die Phänomenologie der pseudoskalaren Mesonen Ds und Bs sowie der Vektormesonen Ds* und Bs*, welche jeweils ein schweres und ein leichtes Quark enthalten, wurde in numerischen Simulationen von Gitter-QCD unter Vernachlässigung virtueller Fermionschleifen untersucht. Besonderer Wert wurde auf die Kontrolle und Minimierung aller systematischen Fehler innerhalb dieser Näherung gelegt. Die Zerfallskonstanten FDs und FDs* und die Massendifferenz zwischen dem Ds- und dem Ds*-Meson wurden aus der direkten Computersimulation von Gitter-QCD in großem physikalischen Volumen (L~1.5fm) bestimmt. Als Nebenprodukt konnte auch ein präziser Wert der renormierungsgruppen-invarianten Charm-Quarkmasse M_c ermittelt werden. Für die Monte-Carlo Simulationen von QCD auf dem Gitter, speziell im hier verwendeten Schrödinger Funktional, wurde eine plattformunabhängige Software entwickelt. Eine Reihe von Simulationen bei verschiedenen Gitterabständen erlaubte die Extrapolation der Ergebnisse zum Kontinuum. Da vergleichbare Simulationen für das Bs- und Bs*-Meson aufgrund der großen Masse des enthaltenen b-Quarks nicht möglich sind, wurde eine Interpolation in der Mesonmasse zu ihrem experimentell bekannten Punkt für die Zerfallskonstante und für den Wert der Massendifferenz durchgeführt. Interpoliert wurde dazu zwischen dem statischen Limes (unendliche Mesonmasse) und dem Bereich von Mesonmassen in der Größenordnung von m_Ds. Für insgesamt sechs Mesonmassen in diesem Bereich wurden die gewünschten Observablen deshalb aus Simulationen von Gitter-QCD in großem Volumen bestimmt und die Ergebnisse zum Kontinuum extrapoliert. Die Form der anschließenden Interpolation in der Mesonmasse zum statischen Limes wurde den Vorhersagen der Heavy Quark Effective Theory (HQET) entsprechend gewählt. Um diese auf QCD zu übertragen, wurden Konversionsfunktionen zwischen HQET und QCD hergeleitet und mit Hilfe von Ergebnissen aus der Störungstheorie numerisch bestimmt. Die Endergebnisse sind F_Ds = 226(7)MeV, F_Ds* = 239(18)MeV, F_Bs = 197(9)MeV, m_{Ds*}-m_{Ds} = 136(9)MeV, m_{Bs*}-m_{Bs} = 63(7)MeV und M_c = 1.60(3)GeV. Das Ergebnis für die Quarkmasse ist äquivalent zu mbar_c^MSbar(mbar_c) = 1.27(3)GeV. Aus der Analyse der so bestimmten Interpolationen ließ sich außerdem abschätzen, daß die führenden Korrekturen zum statischen Limes in der HQET relativ klein sind. Man erwartet deshalb, daß HQET im Bereich der B-Physik eine gute Näherung darstellt. / The phenomenology of the pseudo scalar mesons Ds and Bs and of the vector mesons Ds* and Bs*, each of which contain a heavy and a light quark, was investigated in simulations of quenched lattice QCD. The work was particularly focused on the minimisation of all systematic errors within this approximation. The decay constants FDs and FDs* and the difference in the masses between the pseudo scalar Ds-meson and the corresponding vector meson Ds* were determined from the direct computer simulation of lattice QCD in large physical volume (L~1.5fm). As an aside, the renormalisation group invariant charm quark mass M_c could be obtained from the simulation results. A platform independent software was developed for the Monte-Carlo simulations of lattice QCD within the Schrödinger Functional. A number of simulations at different lattice constants allowed the extrapolation of the results to the continuum. Since comparable simulations for the Bs- and the Bs*-meson are not feasible due to the large mass of the b-meson, an interpolation in the meson mass to its physical point was carried out for the decay constant and the mass splitting. The interpolation was carried out between the static limit and the range of meson masses of order m_Ds. The desired observables were therefore determined and extrapolated to the continuum for altogether six meson masses. The functional form of the subsequent interpolation in the meson mass to the static limit was guided by the prediction of the Heavy Quark Effective Theory (HQET). In order to apply it to the results obtained in QCD, a set of conversion functions between HQET and QCD were derived and evaluated numerically with input from results in perturbation theory. The final results are FDs = 226(7)MeV, FDs* = 239(18)MeV, FBs = 198(9)MeV, m_{Ds*}-m_{Ds} = 136(9)MeV, m_{Bs*}-m_{Bs} = 63(6)MeV and M_c = 1.60(3)GeV. The result for the renormalisation group invariant charm quark mass is equivalent to mbar_c^MSbar(mbar_c) = 1.27(3)GeV. The analysis of the interpolation furthermore allowed to estimate, that the lowest order corrections to the static limit in HQET are relatively small. One therefore can expect HQET to offer a good approximation in the range of B-physics.

In this thesis it is performed the measurement of electrons from heavy-flavor hadron decays, with the use of the ALICE detector, at LHC. Two analysis are performed. The first one consists in the measurement of the invariant cross section of electrons from open heavy-flavor (charm or beauty) hadron decays in pp collisions at s = 13 TeV, the largest center of mass energy generated by LHC up to now, in the transverse momentum interval 0.5 < pT < 4 GeV/c. The experimental cross-section is compared to the pQCD-based prediction given by FONLL, and it sits on the upper edge of the theoretical uncertainty band over the full momentum range. The ratios between this experimental result and the equivalent measurements performed at lower center of mass energy have the potential to bring constrains to the FONLL calculation. The second analysis consists in the measurement of the nuclear modification factor, RAA , of electrons from beauty-hadron decays in the 10% most central Pb-Pb collisions at sNN = 5.02 TeV, in the interval 2 < pT < 8 GeV/c. Electrons from beauty-hadron decays are extracted from the inclusive electron yield via fits to the impact parameter distribution using templates of electrons from different sources, obtained from Monte Carlo simulations. This measurement allows to probe the energy loss of beauty quarks when traversing the Quark-Gluon-Plasma (QGP), a color-deconfined medium produced in relativistic heavy-ion collisions. A suppression of about 40-50% is observed on the RAA for pT > 3 GeV/c and it is consistent, over the full momentum range and within experimental uncertainties, with the prediction of pQCD-based models that describe a mass-dependent energy loss of the heavy-quarks while traversing the QGP, interacting with its constituents via radiative and collisional processes. This analysis brings significant improvement of the experimental uncertainties with respect to the equivalent measurement performed with the run 1 data and consists in an important step in the study of the mass-dependence of the energy loss of heavy quarks inside the QGP at low pT . / Nessa tese é feita a medida de elétrons provenientes do decaimento de hadrons que contêm quarks pesados (charm ou beauty), com o uso dos detectores do experimento ALICE, no LHC. Duas análises são realizadas. A primeira consiste na medida da seção de choque invariante de elétrons provenientes do decaimento de hadrons que contêm quarks charm ou beauty em colisões pp a s = 13 TeV, a maior energia de centro de massa gerada pelo LHC até então, na região de momento transversal 0.5 < pT < 4 GeV/c. Esse resultado é comparado com a previsão dada pelo FONLL (calculo baseado em QCD perturbativa) e se situa no limite superior da incerteza teórica, sobre toda a faixa de momento. As razões entre este resultado experimental e medidas equivalentes realizadas em mais baixa energia podem trazer informações importantes para tornar o cálculo teórico mais preciso. A segunda análise consiste na medida do fator de modificação nuclear, RAA , de elétrons provenientes do decaimento de hadrons que contêm quarks beauty, em colisões centrais de Pb-Pb a sNN = 5.02 TeV, no intervalo 2 < pT < 8 GeV/c. Elétrons provenientes de hadrons que contêm quarks beauty são extrados do conjunto de elétrons inclusivos a partir do ajuste da distribuição do parâmetro de impacto com templates de elétrons de diferentes fontes, extrados de simulações de Monte Carlo. Essa medida permite estudar a perda de energia dos quarks beauty ao atravessarem o Plasma de Quarks e Glúons (QGP), produzido em colisões entre ons pesados em altas energias. É observada uma supressão de 40-50% no RAA medido para pT > 3 GeV/c e esta é consistente, sobre toda a faixa de p T , com a previsão de modelos baseados em pQCD, que descrevem a perda de energia dos quarks pesados via processos elásticos e inelásticos com os constituintes do QGP, de maneira dependente da massa. Este resultado possui incertezas experimentais significativamente menores com relação à medida realizada com dados do run 1 e consiste num importante passo no estudo da dependência em massa da perda de energia dos quarks pesados no QGP em baixo pT .

Die Simulation von diskretisier QCD hat sich zu einem sehr erfolgreichen Verfahren entwickelt, um nicht-perturbativen Berechnungen durchzuführen. In dieser Arbeit untersuchen wir im Detail die Zeit-Momente schwerer Quark-Korrelatoren mit hoher Präzision. Diese werden verwendet, um die QCD-Kopplung durch den Vergleich von Gitter- und Störungsberechnungen zu extrahieren. Dabei müssen diese Observablen von Energien dominiert werden, bei denen beide Methoden angewendbar sind. Genaue Abschätzungen der systematischen Unsicherheiten ist notewendig, da dies Auswirkungen auf Berechnungen von, z.B., Higgs-Zerfällen zu b-Quarks oder Gluonen und Z-Bosonen-Partialbreiten haben. Wir führen eine quenched Untersuchung der Zeitmomente durch, um im großen Volumen mit L=2fm und T=6fm mit offenen Randbedingungen, Gitterabständen von bis ca. 0.01 fm zu erreichen. Wir berechnen Momente und dabei die Kopplung und den Trunkierungsfehler für wechselnde Energie von 0.8 bis 3.5 Mal die charm Masse. Um die großen Diskretisierungseffekte zu kontrollieren, verwenden wir ein nicht-perturbativ verbessertes Wilson-Clover-Fermionen-Dublett mit einem twisted mass Term. Neben der Kopplung untersuchen wir auch ihren Verlauf bis zur unendlichen Energie, kodiert im Lambda-Parameter, und die darin enthaltenen Trunkierungsfehler. Der extrahierte Lambda-Parameter bei Energieskalen von 2 Mal die Charmmasse weist, in Bezug auf step-scaling Ergebnisse, Abweichungen in der Größenordnung von 5% bis 10% auf. Eine Extrapolation bis zum Nullwert der Kopplung ist möglich, allerdings mit einer beträchtlichen Steigung. Weitverbreitete Variationen der perturbativen Renormierungsskala zur Abschätzung des Trunkierungsfehlers scheinen hier die tatsächliche Größe der Fehler zu unterschätzen. Bei der Verwendung der Störungstheorie hoher Ordnung auf den Skalen der Flavor-Physik für die Momente der Korrelatoren schwerer Quarks ist Vorsicht geboten, da große Trunkierungsfehler auftreten können. / The simulation of discretized QCD has become a very successful method to perform non-perturbative calculations. In this work we study in detail the time-moments of heavy quark correlators with high precision. These are used to extract the QCD coupling by comparing lattice and perturbative calculations. These observables must be dominated by energies at which both methods are applicable. Accurate estimates of the systematic uncertainties are needed as this has implications for calculations of, e.g., Higgs decays to b-quarks or gluons and Z-boson partial widths. We carry out a quenched investigation of the time-moments in order to achieve lattice spacings of down to approx. 0.01 fm in large volume, L=2fm and T=6fm, with open boundary conditions. We calculate moments and thereby the coupling and the truncation error for varying energy from 0.8 to 3.5 times the charm mass. To control the large discretization effects, we use a non-perturbatively enhanced Wilson-Clover fermion doublet with a twisted mass term. In addition to the coupling, we also study its evolution to infinite energy, encoded in the lambda parameter, and the truncation errors therein. The extracted lambda parameter at energy scales of 2 times the charm mass shows deviations in the order of 5% to 10% with respect to step-scaling results. Extrapolation to the zero value of the coupling is possible, but with a considerable slope. Widespread variations of the perturbative renormalization scale to estimate the truncation error seem to underestimate the actual size of the errors here. Care should be taken when using high-order perturbation theory on the scales of flavor physics for the moments of heavy quark correlators, as large truncation errors can occur.

Heavy-ion collisions are a powerful tool to study hot and dense QCD matter, the so-called Quark Gluon Plasma (QGP). Since heavy quarks (charm and beauty) are dominantly produced in the early stages of the collision, they experience the complete evolution of the system. Measurements of electrons from heavy-flavour hadron decay is one possible way to study the interaction of these particles with the QGP. With ALICE at LHC, electrons can be identified with high efficiency and purity. A strong suppression of heavy-flavour decay electrons has been observed at high $p_{m T}$ in Pb-Pb collisions at 2.76 TeV. Measurements in p-Pb collisions are crucial to understand cold nuclear matter effects on heavy-flavour production in heavy-ion collisions. The spectrum of electrons from the decays of hadrons containing charm and beauty was measured in p-Pb collisions at $\\sqrt = 5.02$ TeV. The heavy flavour decay electrons were measured by using the Time Projection Chamber (TPC) and the Electromagnetic Calorimeter (EMCal) detectors from ALICE in the transverse-momentum range $2 < p_ < 20$ GeV/c. The measurements were done in two different data set: minimum bias collisions and data using the EMCal trigger. The non-heavy flavour electron background was removed using an invariant mass method. The results are compatible with one ($R_ \\approx$ 1) and the cold nuclear matter effects in p-Pb collisions are small for the electrons from heavy-flavour hadron decays. / Colisões de íons pesados relativísticos é uma ferramenta poderosa para se estudar o plasma de quarks e glúons (QGP). Quarks pesados ({\\it charm} e {\\it beauty}) são produzidos nos estágios iniciais da colisão e participam da evolução completa do sistema. Medidas de elétrons provenientes de quarks pesados é uma das possíveis formas de se estudar a interação destas partículas com o QGP. Utilizando o detetor ALICE do LHC, elétrons podem ser identificados com alta eficiência e boa pureza. Uma forte supressão de elétrons provenientes de quarks pesados foi observada em alto $p_$ em colisões de Pb-Pb a 2.76 TeV. Medidas do mesmo observável em colisões p-Pb são cruciais para se entender os efeitos da matéria nuclear fria na produção de tais partículas. O espectro de elétrons provenientes de hádrons que contêm {\\it charm} ou {\\it beauty} foi medido em colisões p-Pb a $\\sqrt = 5.02$ TeV. Os elétrons foram identificados utilizando o {\\it Time Projection Chamber} (TPC) e o {\\it Electromagnetic Calorimeter} (EMCal) do detetor ALICE, no intervalo de momento transversal de $2 < p_ < 20$ GeV/c. As medidas foram realizadas utilizando dois diferentes conjunto de dados: colisões de mínima tendenciosidade ({\\it minimum bias (MB)}) e colisões tomadas utilizando o trigger do EMCal. Os elétrons de fundo foram removidos utilizando um método de massa invariante. Os resultados são compatíveis com a unidade ($R_ \\approx$ 1) e os efeitos da matéria nuclear fria são pequenos para elétrons provenientes de quarks pesados.