Esta dissertação aborda a controvérsia entre o naturalista inglês John Turberville Needham (1713-1781) e o naturalista italiano Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) sobre o tema da \"geração\" dos seres vivos. Inscrita no âmbito da História da Ciência e inserida na linha de pesquisa História Filosofia e Cultura no Ensino de Ciências, tem os objetivos de contextualizar a controvérsia Needham-Spallanzani a partir de estudos realizados por contemporâneos que desenvolveram trabalhos temática e metodologicamente semelhantes e de apresentar uma discussão sobre a ciência e o papel das controvérsias no desenvolvimento do pensamento científico. Além disso, discute a sua aplicação no ensino de Biologia, com vistas a uma abordagem explícita de questões relacionadas à Natureza da Ciência (NdC). Os resultados experimentais apresentados por Needham à Royal Society em 1748 continham evidências favoráveis à geração espontânea e foram apoiados por Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (1698-1759) e Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon (1707-1788). Incentivado por Charles Bonnet (1720-1793) e René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur (1683-1754), Spallanzani repetiu os experimentos de Needham e publicou os resultados em sua obra mais conhecida, Saggio di osservazioni microscopiche concernenti il sistema della generazione de\' Signori di Needham e Buffon (Ensaio de observações microscópicas sobre o sistema da geração dos Senhores Needham e Buffon) de 1765, em que refutou os resultados do naturalista inglês. A esse livro se seguiram comentários e objeções feitos por Needham em obra publicada em 1769, e uma tréplica de Spallanzani publicada em uma coletânea de trabalhos, Opuscoli di fisica animale e vegetabile (Opúsculos de Física animal e vegetal) de 1776. A análise da controvérsia permitiu concluir que nenhum dos dois autores mudou de posição em função dos experimentos realizados por estarem baseados em pressupostos teóricos distintos. Discutido à luz do papel das controvérsias científicas na ciência, o episódio possibilitou delinear componentes epistêmicos e não-epistêmicos nas situações de conflito entre teorias científicas rivais, aspectos relevantes para a alfabetização científica almejada para o ensino de ciências. / This dissertation approaches the controversy between the english naturalist John Turberville Needham (1713-1781) and the Italian naturalist Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) on the theme of \"generation\" of living beings. As a work related to the History of Science and inserted in the search topic History, Philosophy and Culture in Science Teaching, it has the purposes to contextualize the Needham-Spallanzani controversy from studies carried out by contemporaries of these two naturalists who developed thematically and methodologically similar studies and topresent a discussion about science and the role of controversies in the development of scientific thought. Furthermore, it discusses its application in the teaching of Biology with a view to an explicit approach on the Nature of Science (NOS) issues The experimental results presented by Needham to the Royal Society in 1748 contained favorable evidences to spontaneous generation and were supported by Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (1698-1759) and Georges-Louis Leclerc of Buffon (1707-1788). Encouraged by Charles Bonnet (1720-1793) and René Antoine Ferchault of Reaumur (1683-1754), Spallanzani repeated Needham\'s experiments and published the results in his most famous work, Saggio di osservazioni microscopiche concernenti il sistema della generazione dei\' Signori di Needham e Buffon (Essay of microscopic observations about the generation system of Mr. Needham and Mr. Buffon) of 1765, which refuted the results of the English naturalist. Following that book, comments and objections made by Needham were published in 1769, and a reply made by Spallanzani was published in the collection of works Opuscoli di fisica animale e vegetabile (Booklets of animal and plants Physics) of 1776. The analysis of this controversy led to the conclusion that none of the two authors changed position due to the experiments made since they were based on distinct theoretical assumptions. Discussed in light of the role of controversies in the development of scientific knowledge, this episode allow to outline epistemic and non-epistemic components in conflict situations between rival theories, relevant aspects to scientific literacy longed for science education.

Presented work studies the possibilities of recently established protected landscape area (PLA) Brdy for a systematic use in teaching nature and biology related subjects at schools closely neighboring the PLA. The theoretical part of this diploma work makes a resume of basic information regarding the legal status of PLA's and introduces the reader into main facts about the PLA Brdy focusing on its natural aspects and specifics. General methods of education are reviewed briefly, followed by a more detailed discussion about the educational form of field trip and about possibilities how such trips or excursions to the PLA Brdy can be used in the education practice. The key part of this work is a relatively large questionnaire research for teachers, pupils and students of elementary and secondary schools next to Brdy. It establishes a database of their approaches to and existing experiences with field trips generally and excursions into PLA Brdy in particular. Two separate questionnaires have been used: one for teachers (16 questions, 26 respondents) and another one for pupils and students (30 questions, 152 respondents). Therefore, the database is composed of nearly 5000 responses which have been analyzed. The results show that interviewed pupils and students are clearly interested in the nature and...

This thesis addresses key issues of scientific realism in the philosophy of biology and chemistry through investigation of an underexplored research domain: olfaction theory, or the science of smell. It also provides the first systematic overview of the development of olfactory practices and research into the molecular basis of odours across the 19th and 20th century. Historical and contemporary explanations and modelling techniques for understanding the material basis of odours are analysed with a specific focus on the entrenchment of technological process, research tradition and the definitions of materiality for understanding scientific advancement. The thesis seeks to make sense of the explanatory and problem solving strategies, different ways of reasoning and the construction of facts by drawing attention to the role and application of scientific representations in olfactory practices. Scientific representations such as models, classifications, maps, diagrams, lists etc. serve a variety of purposes that range from the stipulation of relevant properties and correlations of the research materials and the systematic formation of research questions, to the design of experiments that explore or test particular hypotheses. By examining a variety of modelling strategies in olfactory research, I elaborate on how I understand the relation between representations and the world and why this relation requires a pluralist perspective on scientific models, methods and practices. Through this work I will show how a plurality of representations does not pose a problem for realism about scientific entities and their theoretical contexts but, on the contrary, that this plurality serves as the most reliable grounding for a realistic interpretation of scientific representations of the world and the entities it contains. The thesis concludes that scientific judgement has to be understood through its disciplinary trajectory, and that scientific pluralism is a direct consequence of the historicity of scientific development.