The following thesis is a collection of three case studies which shed light on the ideal roles of a daughter in the Roman family over the course of her life. Plentiful recent scholarship on children in the Roman world exists, but few scholars have focused exclusively on girls and women qua daughters. The case studies are centred on epistolary sources which span the late Republic to the second century CE. The chapters of this thesis concern Timoxena, the two-year-old daughter of Plutarch; Minicia Marcella, the teenage daughter of Fundanus; and Tullia, the adult daughter of Cicero. These case studies will illustrate primarily that adult behaviours were constantly idealized throughout the life course of a daughter, but the expectations for a daughter did change to accommodate the actual age of the daughter concerned. In addition, the ideal behaviours expected of a daughter did not necessarily become more gendered as she grew older and became a full member of society, but her contribution to the bond of reciprocal obligation with her parents, dictated by pietas, was expected to intensify as she matured. / Thesis / Master of Arts (MA)

This thesis seeks to show that there were alchemical writings associated with women from Italy, France, the Swiss Cantons and England which originated in the period 1560 to 1616, and that these writings were read, translated, circulated, and referred to, at least up to 1660. The main evidence is provided by case studies: a printed book of secrets by Isabella Cortese (Venice, 1561); a sequence of late sixteenth and early seventeenth century manuscripts associated with Madame de la Martinville and Quercitan’s daughter (Jeanne du Port); and material, including an alchemical receipt book, associated with Lady Margaret Clifford (1560-1616). Supporting evidence suggests these women represent a wider participation of women in philosophical and practical alchemy, and adds to the evidence for evaluating women's participation in early modern philosophy and science. Women apparently read and wrote about alchemy, and assisted its diffusion through their work as editors, compilers, translators and patrons. The thesis compares writings from different genres and languages, and addresses issues such as the problem of defining alchemy, complexities of textual interpretation, and the difficulty of ascertaining women’s authorship or symbolic representation. Through a comparative process, the thesis discusses possible reasons for representations of women's alchemical practice based in key cultural themes: Paracelsian ideas, ambiguous readings of texts, women’s education, spiritual practice and household work, and their liaison with male experts and European networks. The underlying association of the alchemical metaphor of knowledge, that the material world could be returned to a perfected heavenly state, is interpreted with varying sophistication. The thesis considers how these women accommodated gender to alchemical philosophy. It suggests that there was scope for ambiguous interpretation, both of alchemical texts and of shared injunctions for early modern women and medieval alchemist monks to be silent, chaste, and obedient. Women may have used alchemy as an area in which to resist passivity and demonstrate their agency.

In 1698 Christian Kilpatrick concluded a letter to her husband, John Clerk, with the words ‘I rest your loving obedient wife’. These words, or a variation on them, were a common subscript for wives during the seventeenth century. The combination of the words loving and obedient could be used through habit or consciously for effect, yet, in most cases, without any sense of incongruity. The relationship between these terms is at the heart of my thesis. This work explores the nature of the marital relationship during the period 1650 to 1850. It investigates how power was negotiated between couples during a period when marriage was expected to be patriarchal but also to provide happiness and fulfilment for both husband and wife. Throughout, it attempts to identify if and what change occurred over the period. Judith Bennett challenged historians in 1989, and reiterated her call in 2006, to place patriarchy at the centre of women’s history. The thesis takes up that challenge. Through an exploration of power within marital relationships, this thesis highlights how patriarchy operated to confine and restrict women’s social power. It demonstrates that patriarchy was a system that was lived in. Women and men’s understanding of the world and their own identities were shaped by cultural discourses that underpinned the patriarchal system. This thesis reveals that all the operations of married life from love to managing the household to violence were shaped by patriarchal discourses. These discourses were not static but constantly renegotiated through the actions and ideas of individuals, yet throughout the period, the patriarchal system was not fundamentally undermined, but reshaped to meet these challenges. The thesis investigates the operation of this process. It is important to recognise that, as patriarchy was a lived system, it allowed a wide range of behaviours and that people’s response to patriarchy should not only be seen in terms of compliance or resistance. Patriarchy was not only conceived of in terms of male control over women, but in every interaction between the sexes regardless of its motivations. It is through recognising the pervasive nature of patriarchy that historians will no longer contrast, for example, obedience and love, but realise that both obedience and love were part of the system. This interpretation does not undermine other historians’ work in this field, but provides greater explanatory power for patriarchy’s operation and survival. Scottish couples used changing patriarchal discourses in a myriad of ways to shape and explain their experiences. They cooperated, compromised and established power relationships that did not always conform to the ideal, but allowed their marriages to function well and brought them happiness. Not all couples could agree on the balance of power within their relationship leading to arguments and even violence. Yet, while marriages could take a variety of forms, the negotiation of power between couples used a patriarchal script, restricting the language couples used, their expectations and desires and the eventual compromise reached.

<p> This qualitative research study examines the effects of parental historical trauma on the educational aspirations and outcomes of second-generation Cambodian Americans. Twenty second-generation Cambodian Americans whose parents survived the Cambodian genocide (1975&ndash;1979) participated. The dissertation utilized the conceptual framework of historical trauma to navigate the research questions: 1). To what extent are children of Cambodian genocide survivors affected by the trauma their parents experienced and what form does this inherited trauma take? 2). What home experiences enhance or hinder academic aspirations and outcomes of the children of Cambodian genocide survivors? 3). What are the supportive networks and actions that foster hope and positive development for second-generation Cambodian Americans? The data were analyzed using qualitative methods and NVivo software. Three key themes were found. The first theme was unresolved trauma. As a result, parental guidance and an open relationship between parents and children were limited. The second theme was overprotection. It was a common behavior among parents who survived the genocide to want to shield their children from any unforeseen circumstances. The last key finding was a lack of communication between parents and children due to a language barrier. </p><p> Building on the findings of this study, it is recommended that schools with large Cambodian American populations should educate later generations about Cambodian history, including the Genocide, and provide dual immersion language classes. This would help to interrupt intergenerational trauma, reduce the language barrier, and allow students and their parents to find purpose and peace. Future research should explore the experiences of survivors, including survivors who lived through the genocide but did not suffer persecution. Such research could lead to truth and reconciliation.</p><p>

The main argument in this dissertation is that changes in male nuptiality in rural India between 1921 and 1981 was a form of household adaptation to wage dependency and proletarianization in the countryside. The male nuptiality in rural India in 1921 was characterized by extremely early marriage throughout the country. Under conditions of high mortality of that period, early marrying men had an advantage in forming joint households (with both parents present). Male nuptiality in rural India grew more diverse in 1981, and came to be characterized by at least two distinctive nuptiality regimes: One which strongly resembled peasant nuptiality of the early 20th century and the second represented an emergent adult pattern of nuptiality among males in rural India. The variation in marriage age of males in rural India was significantly related to the level agricultural proletarianization in 1981. Regions characterized by early male nuptiality were generally dominated by household-based or peasant production, while regions of later marriage among males were more likely to have a substantial wage labor sector. Due to declines in mortality, the possibility of young men living in a joint household with both parents rose between 1921 and 1981, regardless of age at marriage. But within each level of mortality, early marrying men still had better chances of being able to form a joint household (with both parents). Marriage postponement among males in some parts of rural India may have modified many aspects of the household development process. More important, it may have allowed greater flexibility with respect to the timing of household formation, and also ensured that men were financially able to support a family when they married.

'Marry - Stitch - Die - or Do Worse' ran a Times newspaper leader in 1857. Yet a significant proportion of the adult female population at this time were surviving without a husband, particularly in London. This thesis focuses on the activities of such women who never married, were deserted or became widowed. Sometimes labelled 'redundant', 'distressed' or 'failed' by their contemporaries, they were frequently unsupported. In the face of substantial barriers to paid employment, this thesis argues that self-employment and small business proprietorship was often a viable option. The evidence presented suggests a somewhat different picture to that often generalised for all middle and upper class women in the nineteenth century - that of retreat into the private sphere of home to become the ‘angel in the house’. A wide variety of sources have been drawn upon to examine women's use of small business proprietorship as a strategy in nineteenth century London, including published diaries, trade cards, opinion pieces, trade directories and insurance records. In addition, it is argued that it is only by following the female proprietor home that we can begin to understand the role of proprietorship in women's work-life strategies. Record linkage has been used to obtain more detailed and consistent information on the families and household's of female proprietors than that available from trade directories or newspaper advertisements. Common stereotypes of women in business in this period relating to age, marital status and so on have been assessed in the light of this evidence. This research has revealed that these stereotypes have some truth in their application to women engaged in the production and typically 'male' trades but that such trades represent only a small fraction of the experience and activities of female proprietors.

Increasingly, war and armed conflict are having devastating effects on the psychological and social well-being of civilian survivors throughout the world. There is a serious shortage of practitioners and culturally-appropriate models for assisting victims of psychological trauma with their healing and recovery. Educational settings, be they formal or nonformal, are appropriate places for psychotherapeutic interventions. This dissertation focuses on the intentional use of a nonformal educational setting for psychosocial healing of those exposed to war-induced trauma. A participatory education program designed to teach Central American community mental health workers the basic concepts and techniques of trauma treatment also served as a healing environment for the trainees. Individual psychological trauma as well as war-related intra-group conflict were addressed. Using an integrative model of healing and recovery, the intervention combined cognitive, emotional, spiritual, social, and physical approaches. The educational setting provided a larger interactional framework for the social contextualization of intrapsychic wounds, thus supporting healing. The case illustrates the importance of self-care for professionals and para-professionals working with the psychologically traumatized, which is rarely mentioned in the literature. This is a qaulitative study that combines a literature review on the nature of trauma and recovery, a case study with Central American community mental health workers, interviews with practitioners, and personal experience. The literature review takes into consideration cultural and Latin American perspectives, the importance of community-based approaches, and the linkage of individual and social dimensions. It includes a critique of posttraumatic stress disorder as a conceptual framework. The inquiry examines the viability of intentional incorporation of psychosocial healing into an educational setting, and indicates which components of participatory nonformal education best lend themselves to interfacing with psychological healing. Findings from both the literature and case study point to a need to question long-held assumptions of psychotherapy when working with trauma survivors. Self-care, safe container-building, peer support, mentoring, and a heightened role for para-professionals are recommended. The training and preparation of community mental health workers is seen as an effective response to the proliferation of war-related trauma.

My proposed PhD, titled Zola's Naturalism in The Rougon-Macquart: The Fatality of Sexuality, aims to study the basics of the naturalistic novel in the second half of the nineteenth-century France. Firstly, I have looked back at previous critical studies that were dedicated to the themes of sexuality and/or fatality in Zola's writing. This introductory chapter helped me understand how far critics have gone and what a long way we still have to go before we can fully appreciate the importance of these themes in the context of naturalism. Throughout the twenty novels that make The Rougon-Macquart series, I studied the fictional characters in their being, their appearance and their evolution in space and time. I therefore investigated whether or not these characters were masters or slaves of their space and time and beyond that, what influences they had on each other. Afterwards, I questioned the fecundity of the theme of sexuality in Zola's work to find out both the aspects of originality in his writing and his contribution to the modern novel. Nevertheless, I have criticized Zola on a wider angle as an emeritus writer with his own "weaknesses". Methodologically, I have largely used the semiotics approach along with psychoanalysis due to the specificity of sexuality. Despite the wide range of critical studies on Zola's novels, in my sense, most of them have so far failed to tackle naturalism at its foundations, i.e. sexuality. In fact, if one attempted to free The Rougon-Macquart from the theme of sexuality, neither the Rougon-Macquart family would exist nor the twenty novels they generated. Studying sexuality therefore appeared to be essential to the understanding of the naturalistic theory. However, and surprisingly so, most of Zola's critics have avoided that inescapable theme, perhaps more likely for reasons of decency rather than for scientific ones. It is in such context that I have decided that it was time to bring it to light for the sake of truth about the knowledge of Zola.

No description available.

This dissertation attempts to integrate the household and children more fluidly into measures of well-being in the past. In part one, I develop a Monte Carlo simulation to test some of the assumptions of Allen’s welfare ratio methodology. These included his assumptions that family size was constant over time, that there were no female-headed households and that women and children did not participate in the labour force. After all of the adjustments, it appears that Allen’s welfare ratios underestimate the welfare ratios of a demographically representative group of families, especially if women and children’s labour force participation is included. However, the predicted distributions also highlight the struggles of agricultural labourers, who are given separate consideration. Even the average agricultural labourers’ family with women and children working would have had to rely of self- provisioning, gleaning, poor relief or the extension of the working year to make ends meet at the poorest point in their family life cycle. Part two adjusts Floud et al.’s estimates of calorie availability in the English economy from 1700 to 1909 for the costs of digestion, pregnancy and lactation. Taken together, these three additional costs reduced the amount calories available by around 15 per cent in 1700 but only by 5 per cent in 1909 because of the changing composition of the English diet. Part three presents a new adaptive framework for studying changes in children’s growth patterns over time and a new methodology, longitudinal growth studies, for measuring gender disparities in health in the past. An adaptive framework for understanding growth provides a more parsimonious explanation for the vast catch-up growth achieved by slave children in the antebellum American South. The slave children were only able to achieve this catch-up growth because they were programmed for a tall height trajectory by relatively good conditions in utero. Finally, impoverished girls experienced greater catch-up growth than boys in two schools in late-nineteenth century Boston, USA and early-twentieth century London, suggesting that girls were deprived relative to boys before entering these institutions.