The continued "stereotyping" of Indians, because of imperfect knowledge and a lack of appreciation of their history and culture, is a barrier to understanding of their present poverty and underdevelopment. In recent years, more attention is being paid to the number of Indians who are migrating to the cities from the reserves. There are two main reasons for this; one is the hope of finding employment opportunities; the other is to take further training, which may be academic, technical or vocational. This study examines the needs of the Indian in the city, how they differ from the needs of other migrants, and what is being done to provide for them. In many instances it has been difficult for the Indian to adjust to life in an industrial urban centre. The cultural values are quite different from those to which he is accustomed on Indian reserves or from most of the small communities with which he is familiar. In his need for companionship and understanding, he has seldom been able to avail himself of opportunities to use existing resources in the cities, partly through unfamiliarity with the services offered, partly through shyness or fear of rebuff. Across Canada, associations have been formed by Indians, and in many cases with the cooperation of non-Indian well-wishers, to meet the social needs of these newcomers. A questionnaire was used to gain information from a representative number throughout Canada, especially on (a) the objectives of the associations, (b) the activities they sponsored, and (c) the problems they helped to solve. However, since so few have had more than a few month's experience, it is necessary to regard this largely as an exploratory study. The associations are providing new social relationships and personal services for the Indians in the cities. In so doing they help them feel a sense of participation, and they also increase the Indian's sense of responsibility and possible leadership. There is increasing awareness that the Indian needs help in solving some of his problems, but that he should be helped in the ways he chooses, and in the manner he finds most comfortable. Indian Friendship Centres can be a valuable base to facilitate his adjustment to the city, and his integration into Canadian society generally. There is obvious room for the employment of qualified social workers, as well as volunteers, in this activity. / Arts, Faculty of / Social Work, School of / Graduate

Different dispute resolution mechanisms, including treaties, litigation, negotiation and, to a lesser extent, mediation and arbitration, have been employed to resolve land disputes in Canada over the centuries. Since 1973, the federal government has unilaterally developed and reviewed land claims policies which favour negotiation to resolve land claims between governments and First Nations, Further, two regional institutions were created in Ontario and British Columbia to facilitate the resolution of these complex claims. Various processes have also been used to resolve similar claims in New Zealand and Australia. The problems associated with the present land claims processes in Canada have been discussed for more than twenty years. The purpose of this thesis is to analyze the appropriateness of the various dispute resolution processes which are, or could be, employed to resolve the land question in Canada. The search for dispute resolution mechanisms suitable to resolve land claims is undertaken in light of the two basic characteristics of the relationship of the parties to these disputes: the cultural differences, and the imbalance of power between the parties. The first chapter of my thesis examines the history of land claims policies and processes in Canada, discusses the historical relationship between Aboriginal peoples and governments, and explores the main assumptions, premises, values and beliefs held by the parties involved in Aboriginal disputes, and the dynamics of their relationship. The following three chapters discuss specific dispute resolution processes which have been employed to resolve the land question in Canada. At the end of each of these chapters, suggestions are made to improve these various processes. Chapter Two analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of litigation in the context of Aboriginal land cases. Chapter Three examines the process of negotiation, with a focus on the federal government’s policies on land claims. Chapter Four discusses the processes of mediation and arbitration, and considers the appropriateness of these mechanisms to resolve land claims in Canada. Chapter Five provides a comparative look at three institutions which have been created to resolve Aboriginal claims in New Zealand, Australia and Canada: the Waitangi Tribunal of New Zealand; the National Native Title Tribunal of Australia; and the British Columbia Treaty Commission. Finally, Chapter Six identifies the essential elements which must be present for dispute resolution mechanisms to be successful in the Aboriginal land claims context and integrates these basic principles into a general model of dispute resolution for Canada. In the course of my research, I have examined literature dealing with alternative dispute resolution (ADR), the resolution of Aboriginal claims, and on Aboriginal law generally. Throughout this thesis, I have used different methods of research and analysis. The critical approach is used to question the self-professed legitimacy and fairness of some dispute resolution processes, as well as to examine the theoretical underpinnings of various processes for cultural biases. The comparative method is helpful in analyzing different institutions that have been created in Australia, New Zealand and British Columbia to resolve Aboriginal claims. Finally, considering that the field of dispute resolution is informed by a wide variety of disciplines, the interdisciplinary approach is used to present different propositions concerning which dispute resolution mechanisms are the most appropriate to resolve Aboriginal land claims based on anthropological, historical, sociological and political variables. One of the difficulties in trying to find appropriate dispute resolution mechanisms to deal with Aboriginal land claims is to accommodate the diversity of the approximately 633 First Nations in Canada. Another difficulty relates to the fact that most of the ADR literature rarely addresses the issue of cultural differences. This thesis concludes that the various dispute resolution mechanisms studied have both advantages and disadvantages for resolving the land question in Canada. I suggest that each mechanism has a role to play in the overall process of resolving Aboriginal land claims as long as it accommodates the cultural diversity and ensures that all concerned have a voice in designing the process(es) employed to resolve land disputes. This thesis also recommends the creation of an independent land claims body which would provide the benefits of third-party intervention while avoiding the deficiencies of the present judicial system. Objectives would be to reduce costs, expedite procedures, permit flexibility in the handling of polycentric problems, maximize the involvement of the parties in the process and outcome, and facilitate the production of a settlement which contributes to future harmonious relationships between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal society. The most important element remains that discussions about possible changes to the existing processes should occur between governments in partnership with the First Nations of Canada, and in consultation with non-Aboriginal interests. / Law, Peter A. Allard School of / Graduate

Increasingly, nationalist ideals are being applied by large numbers of politically unrecognized or unsatisfied ethnic communities. The appearance of movements demanding ethnic autonomy in a number of different states worldwide has helped to renew scholarly interest in nationalism. Even in Canada, there was a sharp rise in the political acumen and influence of Aboriginal groups. The resurgence of ethnic nationalism has, indeed, become one of the most striking political developments in recent decades. As a result of these events, questions are being raised about how the relationships between Aboriginal peoples and Canadian governments and society should be structured. At issue are the challenges that ethnicity and nationalism pose. Yet in spite of a genuine willingness amongst a majority of Canadians to reevaluate their place in Canadian society, Aboriginal nationalist assertions have remained largely understudied by students of nationalism. A new understanding of the roots, goals, and internal particularities of these unique ethnic movements is needed. From a survey of the scholarly literature of nationalism and Aboriginal peoples in , Canada, new conceptualizations of ethnic nationalism must be developed, ones which recognize that not all forms of assertion are destructive and dismembering to the larger political community. If Canadians are to find meaningful ways of accommodating these challenges, then incentives must be found and mechanisms developed to both preserve the wider unity of the state and help facilitate the autonomous development of Aboriginal nationalist communities. Recognizing that there are multiple ways of belonging to Canada and realizing Aboriginal self-government are such forms of accommodation.

Increasingly, nationalist ideals are being applied by large numbers of politically unrecognized or unsatisfied ethnic communities. The appearance of movements demanding ethnic autonomy in a number of different states worldwide has helped to renew scholarly interest in nationalism. Even in Canada, there was a sharp rise in the political acumen and influence of Aboriginal groups. The resurgence of ethnic nationalism has, indeed, become one of the most striking political developments in recent decades. As a result of these events, questions are being raised about how the relationships between Aboriginal peoples and Canadian governments and society should be structured. At issue are the challenges that ethnicity and nationalism pose. Yet in spite of a genuine willingness amongst a majority of Canadians to reevaluate their place in Canadian society, Aboriginal nationalist assertions have remained largely understudied by students of nationalism. A new understanding of the roots, goals, and internal particularities of these unique ethnic movements is needed. From a survey of the scholarly literature of nationalism and Aboriginal peoples in , Canada, new conceptualizations of ethnic nationalism must be developed, ones which recognize that not all forms of assertion are destructive and dismembering to the larger political community. If Canadians are to find meaningful ways of accommodating these challenges, then incentives must be found and mechanisms developed to both preserve the wider unity of the state and help facilitate the autonomous development of Aboriginal nationalist communities. Recognizing that there are multiple ways of belonging to Canada and realizing Aboriginal self-government are such forms of accommodation. / Arts, Faculty of / Political Science, Department of / Graduate

This thesis attempts to examine the nature of the system of land tenure as it exists among the Upper Thompson Indians who live in the vicinity of Lytton on the Fraser River. It is a fact that among Indian bands in Canada, there exists the possibility of at least one system of land tenure being in operation and this is as it is officially laid down in the Indian Act. There are instances recorded of the instigation of this official system producing conflict between the administration and the Indian because it violated certain aspects of an indigenous system. It was noticed that among the Upper Thompson, conflict with respect to the question of land tenure was minimal and, as a result, an examination of why this might be so was thought to be of interest. The information for the study was gathered by essentially three main methods: (1) personal interviews with members of nearly every household on the reserve lands; (2) personal access to various files in the Indian Office, combined with discussion with various administrators; and (3) as participant observer among the Indians of the region as they carried out their daily activities. It was concluded in the examination that the official system of land tenure was focused on land which was for the benefit of the band as a whole, and this land was for the most part uninhabited. The administrators were not attempting to instigate a system of land tenure at the level of the individual Indian and consequently he has been left to his own devices to organize how the tenure of land is to be established. This has resulted in considerable variations in the Indian system of land tenure being allowed to evolve. These variations are not articulated normative distinctions by the Indians themselves; rather, they have been observed as methods of behaving with respect to changing sets of facts, such as availability to individual wage labour, accessibility of the Indian to the administrator, and vice-versa, and the relative proximity of the various residential sites to the town of Lytton. The disposition of these factors, among others, has been instrumental in effecting both the extent of the groups which have tenure of land in the region, as well as the nature of the affective significance associated with land. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate

For many Indian bands across Canada, community development planning has emerged as an important approach to change. By forging close economic and political links with one another, small bands can accelerate their development through new economies of scale, heightened political influence, more innovative capacities and other advantages of cooperation. In practical terms, however, the initiation, formalization and consolidation of close inter-band cooperation presents several problems. Native culture lacks traditions in institutionalized inter-community cooperation, internal disharmony in many Indian villages frustrates unity on such Important decisions as whether or not to cooperate, and many. Indian communities are poor in organizational skills essential to planning and implementing cooperative strategies. The purpose of this thesis is to determine the factors responsible for apparently successful cooperation in the case of five Indian bands in the Nicola Valley and to assess the applicability of findings to other groups of Indian communities across the country. A literature review guides the selection of research questions and criteria used in assessing the case. Fifteen factors for effective inter-communlty cooperation are isolated from a literature review and grouped into three general categories: those Important to the initiation of cooperation, those relating to the delivery of the rewards of cooperation, and those affecting the capability of the cooperative organization. Six factors for Initiation include the presence of a common crisis or threat, inter-community similarity and familiarity, consensus, committed leadership, a propensity to cooperate and preliminary planning. Successful cooperation was also found to be linked to the capture by cooperating communities of four types of rewards, each representing a factor: Improved resource acquisition, adaptabli1ity to change, efficiency in community resource use and ability to achieve common goals. Finally, ongoing success was found to be reflected in the capability of inter-community cooperative organizations to accomplish five tasks: build community and staff commitment, plan harmonious inter-community relations, manage its environment, exploit common geography and culture, and solve problems. Case research focuses on five Indian bands in the Nicola Valley of southern British Columbia and is based on forty-one Interviews held in the valley. These bands are represented by the Nicola Valley Indian Administration CNVIA), a centralized bureaucracy which coordinates on behalf of the five communities a wide range of administrative services. Fifteen questions - each corresponding to a success factor derived from the literature - were asked in Interviews with people representing a broad spectrum of the native communities. Responses were compiled and analyzed to assess the degree to which inter-band cooperation conformed to expectations from the literature on successful inter-community cooperation. Analysis led to the conclusion that despite deficiencies in preliminary planning, ongoing planning and problem-solving, NVIA is a successful inter-community cooperative enterprise which has delivered many significant benefits to its member communities. While NVIA's existence suggests a successful initiation process, better planning in the formative years would likely have avoided several problems encountered in later years. Some of the rewards of cooperative effort have been inequitably distributed to member bands and various cooperative programs have been adversely affected by political interference. Perhaps most seriously, NVIA itself was found to be deficient in building broad commitment and designing mutually acceptable solutions to internal difficulties. Effective planning in the early stages is vital to establishing and, more importantly, ultimately maintaining inter-community cooperation. Incomplete planning during the formation of NVIA led to lack of clear consensus on the purpose of cooperation, the nature of inter-band power relations, the obligations of each band, and ways of distributing rewards and minimizing risks to participant bands. NVIA provides evidence that Indian communities can establish close formal relations with each other and thus capture certain Important benefits. Problems encountered suggest, however, that bands ought to temper enthusiasm with deliberation when considering formal copperatlve relations. Analysis of the Nicola Valley story confirmed that consensus, early planning, reward delivery, ongoing planning and problem-solving capacity are especially Important factors in establishing and maintaining lnter-communlty cooperation. The case makes a key contribution to interorganizational relations theory by highlighting the importance of Informal cooperation as a means of preparing Indian bands for more structured cooperation. It also reveals the critical role of persistent and far-sighted leadership in the formalization of inter-band cooperative relations. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

The psychological, cultural, social and economic problems of Indian communities have been widely publicized. In spite of this there exists a lack of documentation of the conflicts between our aboriginal natives and the Federal government. This study has identified some of these conflicts by focusing on: 1) The current inter-governmental relationship between the Department of Indian Affairs (a client centred administrative bureaucracy) and the Indian Band Council (local government) and its effect on planning and administration at the local level. 2) The planning and administrative process at the local government level. The main purpose of the study is to propose a policy of self-reliance for the Indian people. A gradual phasing out of the Department of Indian Affairs is a means towards achieving this policy. Though this is not a study about aboriginal rights it is suggested that any proposed Federal government policy would be unworkable if it did not acknowledge the significance of the aboriginal rights issue for the Indian people. The study is an analysis of material gathered over a three year period during which the author was serving as a Social Service Consultant to the Squamish Indian Band. The material drawn on includes inter-office memoranda, related published documents, information gained as a result of attendance at meetings, and personal discussions in the course of the consulting work. Use is made of applicable theory and practice to help understand the administrative and organizational relationships that exist at the bureaucratic and local level. This study has identified various administrative and behavioral changes that are required in order to correct faults in the current administrative and planning process. These faults must be corrected if the program of self-reliance is to succeed. Case study material of the Squamish Indian Band is used to illustrate conflict areas between an Indian Band and the Department of Indian Affairs. The resulting observations and recommendations may be useful to planning personnel and to Indian communities in pursuing their future developmental objectives. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

Although the rest of Canada has a long history of treaty making, British Columbia has refused to negotiate treaties with Natives since 1854. In 1991, B.C. reversed this position. Events across Canada in the years 1990 and 1991 provide a case study to explain why this decision was made. Quebec’s Oka crisis catalyzed the decision making process underway in B.C. First, during the Oka crisis, B.C. agreed to cooperate with the federal government on a strategy to settle Indian land claims. Second, following the Oka crisis, the First Nations and the federal and provincial governments set up the B.C. Claims Task Force to recommend how these negotiations should proceed. Third, the Task Force made recommendations to address numerous Native grievances and to prevent “another Oka.” Fourth, because of the changed political environment in B.C., both governments accepted all the Task Force’s recommendations by December 10, 1991. It can be argued that B.C. took a rational approach in making this decision to negotiate. The B.C. comprehensive claims conflict can be viewed as part of the evolution of the Native/non—Native relationship in Canada. In early Canada, the two parties initially cooperated through trading and military alliances. Next, in the coercive phase of their relationship, the parties interacted through treaty making and assimilation attempts. Starting in 1969, Natives used protests, lobbying, and legal cases to confront non—Natives. Although B.C. followed a similar pattern, this province’s most notable difference is that no major treaties were signed here. Now, by agreeing to negotiate comprehensive land claims, B.C. is starting to re—establish the cooperative relationship that Natives and non—Natives initially had.

The purpose of this study is to determine whether a sample of First Nations high school students holds the beliefs of an involuntary minority and to determine whether a curriculum which demonstrates that First Nations people can succeed will lead to an increase in the rejection of the beliefs of an involuntary minority, and an increase in self- esteem and pride in heritage. This study is a quasi- experimental design carried out in a natural setting. One experimental group and one control group from a Lower Mainland high school participated in the study. The experimental group consisted of 10 subjects and the control group consisted of 9 subjects. The groups, which were not randomly selected, were pre- and post- tested using the Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory by Battle (1981) and the Pride in Heritage Measure by Kehoe and Echols (1986). All subjects also participated in an interview, which consisted of 13 questions aimed at yielding responses indicating whether or not the subjects hold the beliefs of an involuntary minority. These interviews took place prior to, and following, the treatment. Subjects in the experimental group participated in a treatment, which consisted of a multicultural curriculum demonstrating that First Nations people can succeed. Due to the numerous threats to the design validity of the study, it is not possible to assess the efficacy of the treatment. However, pre-test measures did provide information about the measures and the sample. The self-esteem of the subjects was found to be in the intermediate range. The mean for 19 subjects was 17.7 out of a possible score of 25. Their mean on the Pride in Heritage Measure was 41.6 (n=19) out of a possible score of 48; thus, their score was high. The results of the interviews suggest that 13 subjects do hold the beliefs of an involuntary minority. Although many difficulties were encountered during the conduct of this study, it did accomplish some things. Furthermore, it may have contributed to the development of an interview schedule to determine whether or not individuals from a group known as an involuntary minority do in fact hold the beliefs attributed to an involuntary minority.

The purpose of this study is to determine whether a sample of First Nations high school students holds the beliefs of an involuntary minority and to determine whether a curriculum which demonstrates that First Nations people can succeed will lead to an increase in the rejection of the beliefs of an involuntary minority, and an increase in self- esteem and pride in heritage. This study is a quasi- experimental design carried out in a natural setting. One experimental group and one control group from a Lower Mainland high school participated in the study. The experimental group consisted of 10 subjects and the control group consisted of 9 subjects. The groups, which were not randomly selected, were pre- and post- tested using the Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory by Battle (1981) and the Pride in Heritage Measure by Kehoe and Echols (1986). All subjects also participated in an interview, which consisted of 13 questions aimed at yielding responses indicating whether or not the subjects hold the beliefs of an involuntary minority. These interviews took place prior to, and following, the treatment. Subjects in the experimental group participated in a treatment, which consisted of a multicultural curriculum demonstrating that First Nations people can succeed. Due to the numerous threats to the design validity of the study, it is not possible to assess the efficacy of the treatment. However, pre-test measures did provide information about the measures and the sample. The self-esteem of the subjects was found to be in the intermediate range. The mean for 19 subjects was 17.7 out of a possible score of 25. Their mean on the Pride in Heritage Measure was 41.6 (n=19) out of a possible score of 48; thus, their score was high. The results of the interviews suggest that 13 subjects do hold the beliefs of an involuntary minority. Although many difficulties were encountered during the conduct of this study, it did accomplish some things. Furthermore, it may have contributed to the development of an interview schedule to determine whether or not individuals from a group known as an involuntary minority do in fact hold the beliefs attributed to an involuntary minority. / Education, Faculty of / Graduate