The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of different types of annotations on college students’ foreign language learning in the synchronous computer-mediated communication environment. One hundred and forty-seven second year students were randomly assigned to three conditions: text-only annotations, text + picture annotations, and no annotation. Results indicated that students who received the text-only annotations and the text + picture annotations significantly outperform students who had no access to any annotations on information comprehension and vocabulary learning. However, no significant differences between the two annotations groups were found. The findings, when examined in light of the previous research about computer-based multimedia learning, call into questions of instructional materials design and instructional support that should be provided to students during instruction. The study extended research on applying multimedia principles to different teaching and learning situations, specifically, the synchronous multimodal computer-mediated communication environment. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2017. / June 2, 2017. / Includes bibliographical references. / Vanessa Dennen, Professor Directing Dissertation; Xufeng Niu, University Representative; Fengfeng Ke, Committee Member; James Klein, Committee Member.

Underrepresented (UR) university students approach postsecondary studies in multitudes; yet are minorities in the larger landscape. They are less prepared given sustained societal and systemic inequities, and face added obstacles to success and marginalization in postsecondary settings. To empower them and redress pervasive deficit framing, I evaluated the impacts of a distinctive training system in explicit metacognitive regulation (MR) on low performing, UR university students’ skills and agency. Metacognition, or “thinking about thinking” and self-regulation, the successful control of learning processes are critical to students’ learning and achievement. While institutionalized MR teachings characteristically occur in discipline specific or ‘learning to learn’ courses, the challenges of restricted access and stigmatization of UR students are also pervasive. MR training with explicit motivational theory as content, which is also discipline-flexible and culturally driven, is nonexistent. I used mixed data, bound in a descriptive case study to measure the impacts of this nuanced training. To determine initial impacts, I obtained the participants’ pre to post scores on the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory and Self-Regulation Skills Inventory-Self Report. I interviewed participants six months after training as well, to investigate their extended applications of MR skill for agency. MRT participants significantly improved in MR skill initially and used such skills for agency in their academic lives in the two semesters after training. The students also exerted behaviors in their academic contexts to exemplify Bandura’s (1986) agency tenets – Intentionality, Forethought, Self-Reactiveness and Self-Reflectiveness. I attribute the MRT participants’ successes to the integration of explicit motivation theory topics, cultural relevance and context autonomy in training, with implications and recommendations to researchers and practitioners. I encourage future research studies evaluating such intentional MR training systems, which can subsidize agency within these culturally nuanced college learners. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2018. / May 4, 2018. / Agency, Culture, Marginalized Students, Metacognition, Self-Regulation, Underrepresented Students / Includes bibliographical references. / James Klein, Professor Directing Dissertation; Maxine Jones, University Representative; Vanessa Dennen, Committee Member; Tamara Bertrand Jones, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of the nine-step problem design process (Hung, 2009) to design a problem based learning course. I applied a descriptive case study approach to conduct design and development research (Richey & Klein, 2007). The study was conducted in the Malaysian teacher education setting. In this study, I served both as the researcher and instructional designer of the course. The instructor also involved as co-designer. The student participants were 25 preservice teachers enrolled in a video production course. Various data sources were collected such as a designer log, extant data, surveys, and interviews. The findings indicated that the nine-step problem design process was somewhat suitable in the context of this study due to conditions such as decision-making power, existing materials, lack of knowledge, unclear information of the steps, and time. Therefore, it is recommended that designers have client buy-in when deciding which design model or processes to follow and have some content expertise and experience designing problem based learning. It is also important to have subject matter expert involvement when using the steps to design problem based learning. In regards of participants’ perceptions, the instructor had positive views toward problem based learning and indicated her intention to use it again in the future. However, the instructor felt that designing problem based learning was a challenging and time-consuming task. Overall, the students found problem based learning to be interesting but challenging in terms of completing the video competition and reflection tasks. For future research, performance data such as students’ achievement and problem-solving skills should be collected to inform the effectiveness of the problems developed by using the nine-step problem design process. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2018. / January 9, 2018. / 3C3R, Design and development research, Nine-step problem design process, Problem based learning / Includes bibliographical references. / James Klein, Professor Directing Dissertation; Jonathan Adams, University Representative; Vanessa Dennen, Committee Member; Allan Jeong, Committee Member.

Productive failure refers to an instructional strategy that tasks students with attempting to solve a complex and/or ill-structured problem prior to instruction about the topic. In their problem-solving attempts, the students are anticipated to fail. Failure is a subject of discussion in many theories related to learning (e.g., expertise and self-regulation). In these theories, failure is considered as a natural occurrence where the learners must identify a method to recover. However, recent literature has begun to investigate the efficacy of leading learners directly to experience failure as an instructional strategy. This study investigated the effectiveness of the instructional strategy “productive failure” in improving learners’ conceptual knowledge in chemistry. Productive failure is comprised of two phases, exploration and consolidation. Exploration refers to learners having the opportunity to generate multiple solutions to a problem (i.e., attempt to solve the problem through multiple representations). Consolidation refers to an event where learners refine, correct, and/or consolidate the knowledge generated in the exploration phase. The research on productive failure has traditionally used a complex and/or ill-structured problem during the exploration phase and teacher-led instruction in the consolidation phase. Thus, productive failure is defined as a preparation for future learning activity, in that the exploration phase prepares individuals to learn from the subsequent consolidation phase. Compared to other instructional strategies, productive failure has led to improved knowledge gains on concepts, whereas other learning outcomes result in minimal or no gain. While the efficacy of this approach has been documented throughout the literature, many of the learner characteristics moderating their success under this strategy have not been identified. The types of elements that lead to improved learning under this approach should relate to learners’ abilities to persist through the exploration phase and realize the connection among explored concepts during the consolidation phase. Two characteristics that fit these criteria are cognitive flexibility and need for cognition. Cognitive flexibility deals with a person’s ability to adapt to a learning situation and quickly restructure their way of thinking. Need for cognition refers to a learners’ disposition towards difficult activity. The purpose of this study was to document the effects of productive failure against direct instruction with practice on conceptual learning. Also, this study aimed to identify a moderating role between learners’ need for cognition and cognitive flexibility in their conceptual learning outcomes. In addition, the study investigated four exploratory hypotheses dealing with learners’ satisfaction and process variables of problem solving. The study occurred in an undergraduate chemistry course with 64 students enrolled at a research three university in the southeastern United States during the Fall 2017 semester. This study focused on the topic of chemical reactions, where learners were tasked with explaining molecular changes in a substance. Of the 64 students invited, 58 attended the session where the learners had an opportunity to consent. Of the 58 students, 52 consented to be a part of the study. Those 52 students were randomly assigned into one of the two conditions. Throughout the implementation of the study, six participants dropped out by not attending one or more sessions. This left a remaining 46 total students, with 24 in the direct instruction with practice condition and 22 in the productive failure condition. The difference between these groups was in the sequence of events. Learners in the productive failure condition were tasked to solve a complex problem before instruction on the topic (i.e., chemical reactions), whereas these events were reversed for participants in the comparison group. All participants completed five separate instruments: a demographic and background survey, the cognitive flexibility measure, the need for cognition measure, a satisfaction measure, and a knowledge test before and after instruction. In addition, information on learners’ problem solving performance (i.e., self-reported problem solving time and number of solutions generated) was gather in each group. A combination of t-tests and two-way ANOVAs were conducted to investigate the seven hypotheses laid out within this study. The results indicated that there was no significant difference between the conditions in their posttest scores (i.e., conceptual learning). While cognitive flexibility approached being a significant predictor, neither it nor need for cognition were significant factors impacting learning in either group. The exploratory hypotheses indicated that cognitive flexibility impacted the amount of time learners spent on problem solving, while need for cognition had no impact. Finally, learners’ satisfaction on productive failure was not originally equivalent but in a delayed measure there was no significant differences among the groups. The implications, limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2018. / March 27, 2018. / chemistry, conceptual knowledge, instructional design, productive failure / Includes bibliographical references. / Aubteen Darabi, Professor Directing Dissertation; Neil Charness, University Representative; James D. Klein, Committee Member; Insu Paek, Committee Member.

Motivating learners to participate and interact in online discussions is a challenge faced by many instructors. Despite clear guidelines, learners do not always participate in online discussions and do not meet the expected participation criteria or requirements for the course. Because online interactions are integral to social constructivist learning, little or no learner participation can be a barrier to social dialogue process for knowledge building and learning. While learner participation in online discussions can be attributed to several contextual factors, formative feedback is important to motivate learner participation and interaction. One reason why students might not be motivated to participate could be little or no awareness of how to effectively interact in a course discussion. In this context, SNA can be used to visualize the structure and patterns of interaction in online discussions. Such information can be used to create self-awareness as well as an awareness of other students’ participation. This study explored if structural indicators e.g., participant location in the discussion and relational information about their interaction with others when provided as SNA-based feedback, can motivate learner participation and interaction in online discussion. For the purposes of providing SNA-based feedback, the study used Ego network and two centrality measures—Degree and Eigenvector. The ego network is the neighborhood of a participant and showed direct connections with others in the discussion network. Degree centrality was a measure of the total number of messages sent or received from different interaction partners. Eigenvector centrality was a measure of interaction with partners who in turn, have more interaction partners. Participants with a high centrality score are those who interact more with other participants as they send messages and receive replies. This study addressed student reactions to the SNA-based feedback. Of particular interest was motivational reactions of students and whether they would use the feedback to optimize their discussion participation and interaction. The two research questions that guided this study are: 1) What are learner perceptions of the SNA-based feedback? 2) How do learners participate and interact in the course discussion before and after receiving SNA-based feedback? The participants in the study were 10 students enrolled in a graduate level online course at a large southern research university. The 10 participants agreed to receive feedback and complete a survey at the end of the study. Of these 10 students, three agreed to participate in a follow-up interview. A modified version of Deci and Ryan’s (2007) Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) for pre- and post-survey was used in the study to measure learner motivation to participate in online discussions. Scores on the Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction subscales in a modified version of Keller’s (1987) IMMS survey were used to measure motivational reactions of students to SNA-based feedback. Prompted interviews were conducted with the three participants who indicated willingness to participate. The results of the IMI survey indicated that the students were motivated regarding their beliefs about online discussion. Regarding the perceptions of the SNA-based feedback, the results of the modified IMMS survey showed three of the 10 participants with high motivational reactions, two with low motivational reactions, and the remaining five showing medium motivational reactions regarding their perception of the SNA-based feedback. The Contribution Index (CI) showed that four participants each received more messages than the total number of messages sent. The remaining six participants sent more messages than the number of messages each participant received. While the motivational reactions to SNA-based feedback did not encourage the participants to post more messages, a visible change in behavior was noticeable in early discussion postings by the participants. Findings from this study indicate that the participants actively participated and engaged in the discussions throughout the entire discussion week. The participants appreciated the feedback as it provided them an opportunity to reflect on their behavior and also used to guide how they wanted to participate in the discussion. The participants also noticed a greater sense of connectedness with the whole class after receiving SNA-based feedback. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester 2017. / November 13, 2017. / Includes bibliographical references. / Vanessa P. Dennen, Professor Directing Dissertation; Ulla Sypher, University Representative; James D. Klein, Committee Member; Aubteen Darabi, Committee Member.

More and more educational institutions have been moving towards delivering courses and programs at a distance. Although asynchronous online courses overcome the constraints of time, students feel isolated due to the lack of real-time communications. One possible solution to overcome this isolation been suggested that learner's online behavior and peer-interaction will be more regulated and stimulated by assigning roles to learners in discussion activities. Additionally, roles encourage learners to take more responsibility for their own learning by responding to discussion questions, replying to peers, constructing knowledge, disputing and negotiating with peers within amount of time during the learning process. The study explored the use of the Starter-Wrapper with Roles technique in a fully online class in order to address the overarching question: How does the Starter-Wrapper with Roles technique support sense of community in an online class? Three supporting research questions were addressed: (1) How do students fulfill their assigned roles when using the Starter-Wrapper with Roles technique? (2) How does each of the four roles contribute to student experience in terms of sense of connectedness, sense of learning from others, sense of learning through articulation, sense of learning from course materials, and sense of responsibility? (3) How does the interdependence of roles and role rotation support sense of community? There were 81 students initially signed up the study, however, the number was down to 63 by the end of week 8. I then adjusted discussion groups in order to have a sufficient number of participants in each discussion group. Among 63 students, there were 37 students actually participated in the discussion and 26 student never participated. There were 33 students completed the survey and 18 students participated in the interview at the end of the semester. The results indicated that (1) students generally followed the duties assigned to them. However, not everyone completed their tasks on time, and depending on their assigned role the effect could be problematic. Almost all starters initiated discussion questions and completed their task on time. Even though most wrappers performed their tasks as expected and on time, some wrappers did not summarize at all. Moderators interacted with participants in the midst of discussion primarily by restating details in previous posts and providing feedback on others' ideas. They posted messages on time but did not posting enough messages. Participants were more willing to respond to discussion questions than reply to their classmates' responses. (2) Students reported different levels of sense of connectedness, sense of learning, and sense of responsibility depending on the role they fulfilled. Participants reported a significantly higher sense of connectedness and perceived learning from articulating ideas in their posts than starters. Compared to the wrapper, moderator, and participant roles, starters reported lower perceived learning from others. Furthermore, the starters' learning was most dependent on the course materials, and the wrappers' learning was the least dependent. Finally, Starters experienced a significantly higher sense of responsibility in that role than as a wrapper, moderator, or participant. (3) Students reported a higher sense of community when their classmates mentioned each other by name, answered their questions, or commented on each other's posts rather than make individual posts. (4) Interdependent roles and roles rotation provide students diverse learning experience and experience interdependence in different ways (e.g., to depend on others, to have others depending on them). Students depend on their classmates to participate when using the Starter-Wrapper with Roles technique. Participants need the starter to begin the discussion by posting a discussion question, moderators need the participants to respond to discussion questions so they can contribute their replies, and the wrapper needs to read everyone's messages in order to wrap up the discussion. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester 2016. / March 29, 2016. / Feeling of Isolation, Interdependence, Intersubjectivity, Online Course, Role Assignment, Sense of Community / Includes bibliographical references. / Vanessa P. Dennen, Professor Directing Dissertation; Paul F. Marty, University Representative; Marcy P. Driscoll, Committee Member; James D. Klein, Committee Member.

Professionals engaged in work continuously confront situations and tasks that require the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. The workplace has been acknowledged as an environment rife with learning opportunities; employees continually construct and apply knowledge within an authentic context (Billet, 1995). Both formal and informal learning contribute to workplace learning (Brockman & Dirkx, 2006; Choi & Jacobs, 2011; Ellinger, 2005). Frequently required, devised, and implemented by organizations, formal training programs involve structured and intentional learning. Informal learning, however, entails individuals seeking and engaging in unstructured, learner-directed, and sometimes spontaneous activities to gain tacit or explicit knowledge and experience (Dennen & Wang, 2002; Jacobs & Park, 2009; Marsick & Volpe, 1999). Although workplace learning consists of both formal and informal learning, the majority of learning that occurs in the workplace is informal, rather than formal (Ellinger, 2005; Lohman, 2000; Marsick & Watkins, 2001). Informal learning is so prevalent in the workplace that the reported ratio of formal to informal learning highly favors informal, sometimes as steeply at 10 to 90 percent (Cross, 2013; Lohman, 2003; Marsick & Watkins, 1990). Within the workplace, the discipline of instructional design and performance improvement (ID/PI) focuses on supporting professionals’ learning and performance needs. As a result, the majority of organizational resources devoted to learning are allocated to more formal means, such as training and workshops (Ellinger, 2005; Lohman, 2000; Marsick & Watkins, 2001). Given that the majority of learning among employees is more informal than formal in nature, and also that the role of ID/PI practitioners is to ensure support of those employees, an interesting connection between ID/PI and informal workplace learning appears (Klein & Moore, 2016). However, despite the exciting potential of this intersection, the connection between ID/PI practitioners and informal learning has not received much attention from researchers. Only two empirical studies have intersected the fields of ID/PI and informal learning, and both have done so by addressing the informal workplace learning of ID/PI practitioners. Berg and Chyung (2008) focused on the informal workplace learning of performance improvement professionals, but did not explain why they chose this population or how this group of practitioners may utilize informal learning strategies to support their clients. More recently, Yanchar and Hawkley (2014) explored the informal learning that occurred during design work among an ID/PI team, but again did not explore if the team incorporated informal learning into the services provided to clients. The purpose of this study was to investigate the perception of informal learning strategies among ID/PI practitioners on two levels: the practitioner (professionals facilitating informal learning) and the organization (an entity supporting informal learning among employees). Four research questions, aligning with the two levels of inquiry, guided this study: A. The practitioner: Research Question 1: What types of informal learning activities do ID/PI practitioners facilitate in their organization? Research Question 2: How do ID/PI practitioners facilitate informal learning in their organization? B. The organization: Research Question 3: What environmental factors do organizations provide to facilitate informal learning? Research Question 4: How do organizations facilitate informal learning among their employees? The two-part study consisted of an online survey and follow-up interviews with current ID/PI practitioners. Respondents to the survey included 385 practitioners (37% men, n=143; 64% women, n=241), of which 20 volunteers participated in 1-on-1 interviews. The results indicated that ID/PI practitioners predominantly engage in informal learning activities in order to facilitate informal learning among others. More specifically, both survey and interview data revealed that practitioners often share knowledge to do so (e.g., read a useful article online and forward the link via email to others). Results also indicated that organizations facilitate informal learning among employees through the internal culture, physical workspace, and resources and tools. For example, regarding the physical workspace, a workplace with open architectural features that encourage employee interaction (shared desks, low cubicle partitions, or common lounge areas) is conducive to informal learning. As proponents of learning, ID/PI practitioners may leverage organizations’ environmental factors to facilitate informal learning among employees, thus increasing performance. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester 2016. / September 14, 2016. / informal learning, instructional design, performance improvement, workplace learning / Includes bibliographical references. / James D. Klein, Professor Directing Dissertation; Stephen D. McDowell, University Representative; Vanessa P. Dennen, Committee Member; Robert A. Reiser, Committee Member.

This study examines the usage of an Augmented Reality (AR) supported, simulation-based immersive learning environment to teach complex problem-solving skills. This study focuses on comparing student performance in complex problem solving between those that learn using AR supported, simulation-based group problem-solving activities as opposed to those learning through non-AR supported group problem-solving activities. This study consisted of a pretest and posttest control group design which evaluated the individual performance of forty-eight participants on a complex, real-world problem solving, written examination. This investigation included the use of group observations as well as group interviews within the process. The treatment group participated in AR supported, simulation-based group problem-solving exercises that focus on complex problem solving. The control group participated in a non-AR supported version of the simulation-based group problem-solving exercises that focus on complex problem solving. The AR supported, simulation-based immersive learning system used replicated the tasks and responsibilities of the flight crew and mission control team for the retired NASA Space Transportation System or “Space Shuttle.” The simulation system included the launch phase, orbit insertion and subsequent landing at the Kennedy Space Center with the addition of in-flight emergencies to replicate complex problem-solving events. The results of this investigation demonstrate that an AR supported, simulation-based immersive learning system can significantly make a difference in student complex problem-abilities as determined by a written test. This difference was also supported by the observations of the Research and Control group participants and the selected interviews conducted during the investigation. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / 2019 / October 16, 2019. / Aerospace, Augmented Reality, Complex problem solving, Immersive learning system, Problem solving, Simulation / Includes bibliographical references. / Fengfeng Ke, Professor Directing Dissertation; Sherry Southerland, University Representative; Vanessa Dennen, Committee Member; Valerie Shute, Committee Member.

Embodied interactions and learning have garnered a lot of interest among researchers and game designers in past years, especially with the recent development of consumer-level body sensory devices like the Microsoft Kinect. This study focused on examining whether embodied interactions, enabled by the Kinect, could lead to greater knowledge acquisition compared to traditional mouse-based interactions working with STEM-related (numeric systems) and language-related (Chinese character) learning in a virtual learning environment for adult learners. Embodied cognition, body movements and learning, cognitive processing theories were discussed as a theoretical framework for this study. A 3D virtual learning environment was designed, in which learners could interact with the instructional materials through either their body movements, or a mouse. The study utilized an experimental, two-group, pre- and posttest design. The experimental group used the Kinect-enabled embodied interactions and the control group used the traditional mouse-based interactions during an on-site learning intervention. Fifty-three adult participants were recruited and randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the control group. Scores from immediate posttest and delayed posttest between the two groups were compared with ANCOVA using pretest score as the covariate. Statistical results informed that embodied interactions enabled by the Kinect facilitated learning in numeric systems and Chinese characters for the participating adult learners. However, compared with the mouse interaction, the embodied interaction enabled by the Kinect did not lead to significantly better knowledge retention and application results in both immediate posttest and delayed posttest in numeric systems learning. And for Chinese characters learning, compared with the mouse interaction, the embodied interaction enabled by the Kinect did not lead to significantly better knowledge retention results in the immediate posttest either, but achieved significantly better performance in the delayed posttest. The study outcome implies that Kinect-based embodied interactions do not necessarily lead to better learning performances over traditional mouse-based interactions for adult learners. The performances may depend on subject areas, and at what time learners’ knowledge retrieval were evaluated. When designing computer-mediated learning modules, researchers and practitioners should not only look at the new technology and novel approaches to interacting with the computers, but also take the subject areas, learners, and time issues into consideration as well. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2017. / June 23, 2017. / Embodied Interactions, Kinect, Learning / Includes bibliographical references. / Fengfeng Ke, Professor Directing Dissertation; Gordon Erlebacher, University Representative; Valerie J. Shute, Committee Member; Allan C. Jeong, Committee Member.

Use of real, authentic whole tasks in training has been the focus of current instructional theories and practical educational approaches (Merrill, 2002; Reigeluth, 1999; van Merrienboer & Kirschner, 2001). However, teaching authentic tasks poses challenges because of the complex nature of these tasks and the limited capacity of working memory. To overcome these challenges, van Merrienboer and Paas (1996) proposed the Four Components of Instructional Design (4C/ID) model to teach authentic complex skills without overloading the working memory. The model has four components: learning tasks, supportive information, procedural information, and part-task practice. Basing the 4C/ID model, Kester et al. (2001) suggest that presenting supportive information before and supportive information during the task practice would lead to more effective and efficient instruction than presenting the procedural information before and supportive during the practice tasks. Even though the ‘supportive before, procedural during’ information presentation format has been hypothesized to be superior to the other information presentation formats (i.e., supportive before, procedural before; supportive during, procedural before; supportive during, procedural during), not all empirical studies and findings confirm this particular hypothesis (Kester et al., 2001; Kester, Kirschner, & van Merrienboer, 2004a; Kester, Kirschner, & van Merrienboer, 2006). To explain these conflicting findings, differences in the degree to which learners were allowed or not allowed to review information presented prior to the practice session (learner control) was tested in this study. The purposes of this study were to (a) investigate the effects of the information presentation format on practice tasks, posttest, transfer test, mental effort, instructional efficiency, and performance efficiency, (b) investigate the effects of the learner control on practice tasks, posttest, transfer test, mental effort, instructional efficiency, and performance efficiency, (c) reveal the interaction effects, if there is, between the information presentation format and learner control on the practice tasks, posttest, transfer test, mental effort, instructional efficiency, and performance efficiency, and (d) assess the students’ attitudes toward the instructional modules. To accomplish these purposes, the study used 2x2 (n=4) factorial design to compare the effects of presenting supportive information before procedural information during the practice tasks with learner control (PS_L); presenting supportive information before procedural information during the practice tasks with system control (PS_S); presenting supportive information before procedural information during the practice with learner control (SP_L); and presenting supportive information before procedural information during the practice tasks with system control (SP_S). The dependent variables were practice task scores, post-test, transfer test, mental effort, time-on-task, instructional efficiency, and performance efficiency. The students completed a demographic survey, two modules with practice tasks, post-test, transfer test, and an attitude survey. The learner control group was enabled the students to go back and review supportive information during task practice within the entire course while the system control group were not able to go back to review the procedural information they receive prior to starting the task practice. Overall, ninety-hundred participants from a southern city in the United States are assigned to one of four conditions. The results revealed that students in the PS group performed significantly better on the practice tasks and posttest than students in the SP group; students in the learner control group performed significantly better than students in the system control group on the practice tasks and posttest. Even though no interaction found between the timing of information presentation format and learner control on the dependent variables, the post hoc results showed that presenting procedural information before the practice tasks with learner control led to a greater performance on the practice tasks, posttest, and instructional efficiency. Regarding to the post study learners’ attitude survey, the SP_L group showed more positive attitude toward the instruction than the other groups even though the PS_L group performed significantly better than the other groups. Overall, the study found some evidence that presenting procedural information before practice task was more effective and efficient than presenting supportive information before practice task when given learner control. In cases where it is possible to provide learner control (such as an online self-paced instructions), the findings in this study suggest that instructors use the PS presentation format. Considering the limitations of this study, the findings in this study are not conclusive. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2017. / July 17, 2017. / cognitive load theory, four components of instructional design, instructional design, just in time model, learner control, timing of information presentation / Includes bibliographical references. / Allan C. Jeong, Professor Directing Dissertation; Gordon Erlebacher, University Representative; Vanessa P. Dennen, Committee Member; James Klein, Committee Member.