In one secondary school in Scotland, there was a trend that girls performed significantly better than boys at the more challenging levels of external examinations. The focus of this thesis has been an exploration of 16 to 18-year-old, academically able boys’ perceptions of their learning in this school, to seek an explanation for this phenomenon. The literature review considers the concept of gender in education; the policy landscape and national attainment data in relation to gender and attainment; and the key reviews/studies carried out in this field to provide governments with a deeper understanding of gendered performance, and recommendations for educational professionals to bring about improvements. These reviews/studies focused on all boys and not on this particular subset of academically able boys. A central issue in gender equity in education is the lived experiences of different groups of learners in schools. The stance taken in this research is to consider the learning of selected boys (who are high attaining, or who have the potential to achieve highly academically) from the senior year groups in one school by exploring, through interview, their personal experiences, views, perceptions and opinions about learning: the factors that facilitate and hinder progress in learning. For the case study approach adopted, groups of girls, teachers and parents in the school were also interviewed to triangulate the findings from the boys’ interviews. A grounded theory approach, using methods developed by Strauss and Corbin (1990, 2008) and Glaser (1992), and supplemented by techniques advocated by Charmaz (2014), was used for the interviewing and the analysis of the empirical data collected: using line-by-line coding, conceptualisation, categorisation and theory generation. The advantage of grounded theory is that it is ‘grounded’ in the empirical data. This interpretative approach makes no attempt to select and ‘test’ factors that could be influencing the phenomenon, rather exploring widely to seek understanding from the perspective of the subjects. The grounded theory that emerged from the case study in School A was that these boys realise what is required of them to be successful in their learning, and what hinders their learning, but their success is limited by adopting an essentialist construction of their gender with gender stereotypical characteristics. The phenomenon is not unique to this one school and so a similar case study approach was undertaken in two further schools, Schools B and C, to consider the transferability of the theory emerging from the data collected in School A. School B had a similar gendered attainment profile to School A, whereas in School C there was little or no difference in attainment by gender. The thesis concludes with some recommendations for policy and practice: professional learning of teachers, working with parents on understanding gender, and the privileging of ‘pupil voice’ as a way of exploring issues such as gender.

Systematic observations by 33 psychologist-observers of 228 lessons in 28 UK secondary schools were included in this study. A new method: the Mixed Interval Classroom Observation (MICRO) schedule was used to collect data about teachers’ use of 4 different types of verbal feedback and make associations with the proportion of students’ time in academic classes that they were following teachers’ directions and were ‘on-task’. Key findings from 27 UK secondary schools included: students were significantly less ‘on-task’ than students in UK primary schools; secondary school teachers used low frequencies of positive verbal feedback directed towards academic work and behaviour and much higher frequencies of critical comments directed towards behaviour; teachers’ critical comments directed towards behaviour were significantly associated with lessons where students were less compliant with teachers’ directions; and teachers who used high frequencies of positive comments directed towards academic work and social behaviour were not associated with lessons where students followed teachers’ directions more. The number of teachers who did not use any positive comments about social behaviour was high compared to the findings of previous researchers. Teachers who used verbal feedback were more likely to use more with the lower year groups. Unlike primary students, no evidence was found that secondary students were more engaged with academic work when taught by teachers who used higher levels of verbal teaching behaviour: teachers who talked more. A number of contextual factors were also examined for their association with students’ compliance with teachers’ directions. Findings included: teachers who were more experienced were more likely to be teaching students who followed their directions. Subsequently, every teacher in one particular secondary school that had been placed in ‘special measures’ following an Ofsted inspection, was observed twice, A.M. and P.M., using the MICRO schedule, and the results were statistically compared with the UK dataset of 27 secondary schools described above. Initial findings of this exercise were shared with the school’s senior leadership team (SLT) and their discussion was recorded, transcribed and analysed using the ‘Iterative Learning Conversations’ (ILCS) discourse analysis method (Apter, 2014). Findings revealed that the SLT believed that the exercise of exploring the statistical comparison was of significant utility in strategic planning. The results provided evidence for their beliefs as to why the maths department had been found to have serious weaknesses during the inspection, and that the way that teachers used verbal feedback throughout the school required further monitoring and improvement. Conclusions are drawn about the nature of teachers’ verbal feedback in secondary schools and how Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning Theory and reciprocal determinism provide a robust psychologically explanatory model (more-so than a behavioural stimulus-response model) as to how the bi-directional interaction of teacher-feedback and student behaviour works to indicate the conduciveness of the social-emotional climate for learning in a school.

The vast majority of studies of educational change are contextualised within the school. This is a new qualitative multi-level study of the interaction of the school with its LEA and government and the current changes to the structure of the education system. A number of LEAs have changed, or have plans to change, the age of transfer at which pupils move fromprimary to secondary school. The eGect is to dismantle three-tier systems, i.e. Grst, middle and secondary schools; and to replace them with a two-tier system of primary and secondary schools. This represents the abolition of middle schools in those LEAs. Principal access for the research was at Chief Education Officer level, with headteachers, governors and parents also targeted. Some pupil interviews were possible. Research data was collected in these interviews and through documentary evidence gathered &omboth study areas, and &om any LEA which had formally considered change. The quality of the data was ensured by encouraging participants to comment upon and check the accuracy of their contributions. Analysis was achieved by the constant comparative method. In 1970, Birley wondered how far age of transfer was a national issue, and how far a matter for local discretion. The evidence of this research would suggest that it has the appearance of a local discretionary matter, but, in reality, enormous pressure is applied through government direct action or its agencies. This study concludes that the relationship between LEA and the government is ambiguous; that LEA planning can be thwarted by cross-cutting aspects of legislation - what may be called "bureaucratic bolt-holes'; that changing the age of transfer &om 12 or 13 back to 11 is demonstrably unnecessary on purely educational grounds; and that the tensions between choice and economy contributed to the decline of the middle school.

Contemporary psychology has linked humans’ societal nature to the need to feel part of a community. McMillan and Chavis (1986) conceptualised a sense of community (SoC), upon four factors: 1) membership; 2) influence; 3) integration and fulfilment of need; and, 4) shared emotional connection. SoC has been explored in a variety of contexts identifying distinct correlated outcome-variables. For adults and young people alike, a strong SoC is positively related to outcomes in personal performance, health, and well-being. Recently, consideration has focused on schools as key ‘educational communities’ where pupils develop a SoC and learn the rules of society. Key educational legislation within the UK emphasises the importance placed upon developing community cohesion within schools. Within educational settings SoC has been shown to relate strongly with this aim, as well as correspond with positive outcomes in both pupil performance and well-being. However, research has lacked focus upon the mechanisms involved in developing a positive SoC within young people. This has meant that schools, as moral agents in facilitating young people’s formation of SoC, are yet ill informed as to how they can help in this process. This study accessed the experiences of 777 pupils in the South of England (Mage=13.34years, %Male= 52) of their schools as communities. Ratings of pupil’s SoC were explored in relation to educational outcomes (Attainment, Attendance, Academic Self-concept) and measures of well-being (Self-Esteem, Life-satisfaction, Loneliness). Additional attention was paid to the hypothesised role of achievement motivation as an underlying mechanism between SoC and outcomes. Further, individual’s levels of Narcissism were explored as a potential personality level moderator. Correlation analyses indicated strong links between increased levels of SoC within school and multiple positive outcomes. Conditional processing models showed achievement motivation, notably via Mastery-Approach goals, to mediate all relationships, with Narcissism having a limited moderating effect.

Research has shown that negative emotions, particularly anxiety, can play a role in learning and academic performance. The Processing Efficiency Theory (PET) and the more recent Attentional Control Theory (ACT) have been put forward to explain the relationship between anxiety and performance. The theories assume that worry (the cognitive component of anxiety) is thought to have a significant impact on performance and that the affect of anxiety on performance is through working memory, and in particular the central executive. The literature review identified a number of key areas of development, including the application of the theories to younger populations and with targeted populations who underachieve in school. The empirical paper aimed to test the application of PET and ACT for pupils with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties (SEBD). It investigated whether the negative impact of anxiety on academic performance was mediated via working memory and whether this relationship was moderated by emotional regulation. Twenty-four pupils with SEBD aged 12 to 14 completed working memory tasks and self-report anxiety measures. Academic performance was also assessed. Heart rate variability and parent-rated measures of conduct problems and hyperactivity were used as indicators of emotional regulation. The results showed that overall, there was a negative association between test anxiety and academic performance and this association was clearer for the thoughts component of test anxiety. Visuospatial, but not verbal working memory was found to mediate the relationship between test anxious thoughts and academic performance on tasks where the central executive was involved. These findings are broadly consistent with PET and ACT. The mediation relationship was stronger for pupils identified as displaying higher levels of hyperactivity; no moderating effect was found for either heart rate variability or conduct problems. The results have implications for understanding the underachievement of children with SEBD and for considering interventions to promote attainment in school.

Despite the fact that the primary languages initiative was not made compulsory in 2011, excellent progress has been made in implementing primary language teaching in the majority of English schools. However, previous research in a range of contexts has shown that a critical success factor for the success of early foreign language teaching lies in the successful transition of pupils from primary to secondary school. Transition studies focused on the core subjects of English, maths and science have shown that there are issues related to social adjustment as well as evidence of a drop in learner motivation across the first year of secondary school along side a hiatus in academic progress. In relation to foreign language teaching, it is well-documented that poor transition and liaison arrangements contributed to the failure of the last major primary languages in England. Several other studies report a lack of clear evidence of a sustained advantage for early starters and a drop in learner motivation following transition which has been attributed to a lack of continuation in teaching approaches and a tendency for secondary schools to start language teaching from scratch. Taking a longitudinal mixed-method approach to the investigation of learner motivation and linguistic progression, with a cohort of 26 students from two primary schools, the study provides detailed information firstly on the levels of French attainment reached at the end of the primary phase as well as motivation for language learning. Data collected at two points post transition show that motivation developed qualitatively and quantitatively across the year, particularly in relation to the learning situation and the perceived instrumentality of language learning. There was no evidence of a hiatus in terms of learner progression in French learning however the results emphasise the role of individual differences in learner outcomes. This study contributes to an increased understanding early learner motivation and provides detailed, insightful and original evidence regarding the learning of French by early learners within an instructed setting.

This study looks at two areas that have been 'blind spots' in the education discourse thus far: middle leadership and independent education. Using a case study method, 20 middle leaders and 5 senior leaders were interviewed over a 22 month period. The 750 items of data that emerged were then coded into 40 codes, nested within six main themes. These findings revealed the challenges faced by newly appointed middle leaders as well as the opportunities available to them. The findings are combined with leadership development models from around the globe to recommend an empirically informed programme of what should be contained within a middle leadership development programme, along with how it should be delivered.

Despite the widely accepted theories on transformational leadership and its impact on student outcomes, in the West, much less is known about this model in developing countries, including Nigeria. This study explored how learners' outcomes are affected by transformational leadership in Rivers State. The research mapped the prevalent leadership styles to see whether, and to what extent, they illustrated any components of transformational leadership, using Bass’s six transformational leadership (TL) measuring instruments. This exploratory study adopted a mixed-methods approach to investigate this phenomenon, with a multiple case-study design, in five schools from the rural riverine and urban communities of Rivers State, Nigeria. Learners' attainments were examined using a documentary approach while principal and teacher perspectives were obtained via semi-structured interviews. Existing Western theories relating to transformational leadership were confirmed, contradicted, modified, and extended, in this African context. The findings revealed that transformational leadership in Rivers State shares some similarities with Western research and literature but also exhibits certain dissimilarities. The research confirms the growing recognition that leadership theories and models need to be adapted when applied to new, and developing, contexts.

A quantitative study explored the values profile of teen self-identifying Buddhists growing up in Britain and the degree to which religious affiliation, sex, age, social class and convert or heritage religious style linked with features of their Buddhist identity and values. A variety of attitude statements including those concerning personal well-being, psychological type, discrimination, the media, friends, work, school, Religious Education, family, substance use, collectivism, tradition and religion, were rated for levels of agreement using postal and online surveys of 417 self-identifying Buddhists aged between 13 and 20. Likely antecedents of Buddhist identity were found to include parenting style, spiritual teachers, temple training and ethos, shrines and religious practice in the home, collectivism, cleavage against assimilation and intuitive psychological type. Teen years saw a decline and relativising of Buddhist values except for inspiration towards engaged Buddhism and spending time in the monastic order. Likely consequences of Buddhist identity were found to include impact on lifestyle, commitments and personality. Being Buddhist and male was different from being Buddhist and female in that males were more extraverted and ordination-oriented in their faith aspirations and less concerned about their children growing up Buddhist. Lower class Buddhists were more likely to be collectivist and traditional. Middle class Buddhists were more vertical individualist and interested in a monastic vocation. In terms of religious style, heritage Buddhists were found to be more extrinsic and traditional in their religiosity than convert Buddhists for whom religiosity was more intrinsic and reform orientated. This dissertation offers quantitative evidence for individual differences between convert and heritage Buddhist styles of religiosity and commends emphasising religious practice rather than beliefs, scripture and spirituality when portraying Buddhism in school Religious Education.

Situated in the post-war socio-political milieu, there has been a poverty of citizenship education in Hong Kong schools for more than three decades. The political changes of decolonization and reintegration with mainland China pose new challenges to political education in Hong Kong. Starting with a concern over the programme of civic education in Hong Kong secondary schools, the present study addresses the question of the role of schooling in transmission of social-political orientation to the students. Drawing upon the theoretical perspectives and findings of political socialization studies, Neo-Marxism, and critical studies of colonial education, the present study conceptualizes school as an agent of political socialization and analyzes the current objectives, contents, organization and implementation of civic education programmes, as well as the formal and informal curriculum at work in six secondary schools in Hong Kong, in particular with reference to the very nature of 'citizenship' itself and die notion of 'civic education'. Albeit with the civic education movement in the 1980s onwards, civic education in schools still fail to provide our further citizens with the necessary political orientation and competence in democracy and national identity to prepare for the change in political system. Instead, the role of school performs socializing and stabilizing functions to the status quo. This dissertation further discusses the theoretical significance on the debate about the role of schooling in political socialization and in the constitution of adolescent political culture and of political order. Practical implications concerning political education in Hong Kong are discussed in addition to a critique and evaluation of civic education programmes in schools.