John le Carré’s novels “The Spy Who Came in From the Cold” (1963), “Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy” (1974), and “The Tailor of Panama” (1997), focus on how the main characters reflect the somber reality of working in the British intelligence service. Through a broad post-structuralist analysis, I will identify the dichotomies - good/evil in “The Spy Who Came in From the Cold,” past/future in “Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy,” and institution/individual in “The Tailor of Panama” - that frame the role of the protagonists. Each character is defined by his ambiguity and swinging moral compass, transforming him into a hybrid creation of morality and adaptability during transitional time periods in history, mainly during the Cold War. Le Carré’s novels reject the notion of spies standing above a group being celebrated. Instead, he portrays spies as characters who trade off individualism and social belonging for a false sense of heroism, loneliness, and even death.

The main purpose of this thesis is to consider usual statistical tests for discrete data and to present some recent developments around them. Contents can be divided into three parts. In the first part we consider the general issue of misclassification and its impact on usual test results. A suggested diagnostic examination of the misclassification process leads to simple and direct investigation tools to determine whether conclusions are very sensitive to classification errors. An additional probabilistic approach is presented, in order to refine the discussion in terms of the risk of getting contradictory conclusions whenever misclassified data occur. In the second part we propose a general approach to deal with the issue of multiple sub-testing procedures. In particular, when the null hypothesis is rejected, we show that usual re-applications of the test to selected parts of the data can provide non-consistency problems. The method we discuss is based on the concept of decisive subsets, set as the smallest number of categories being sufficient to reject the null hypothesis, whatever the counts of the remaining categories. In this framework, we present an iterative step-by-step detection process based on successive interval building and category count comparison. Several examples highlight the gain our method can bring with respect to classical approaches. The third and last part is consecrated to the framework of item response theory, a field of psychometrics. After a short introduction to that topic, we propose first two enhanced iterative estimators of proficiency. Several theoretical properties and simulation results indicate that these methods ameliorate the usual Bayesian estimators in terms of bias, among others. Furthermore, we propose to study the link between response pattern misfit and subject's variability (the latter as individual latent trait). More precisely, we present "maximum likelihood"-based joint estimators of subject's parameters (ability and variability); several simulations suggest that enhanced estimators also have major gain (with respect to classical ones), mainly in terms of estimator's bias.

At the turn of the twentieth century, City Beautiful principles manifested themselves in the historic core of New Orleans: the Vieux Carre. City and state officials determined that the Cabildo and Presbytere were no longer suitable sites for the Louisiana Supreme Courts, and set about erecting a monumental, Beaux Arts-style courthouse amid the dense, vernacular built environment of the French Quarter. Two hundred fifty-one individuals were displaced as a result of the expropriation and demolition of forty-one structures occupying the square bounded Royal, Chartres, Conti and St. Louis streets. While significant scholarly research has interpreted the motives and visions of Progressive-era urban reformers, few studies have addressed issues of power in shaping these narratives and in silencing the past. Through its analysis of the planning processes surrounding the Louisiana Supreme Court Building, this thesis acknowledges these silences and raises questions about those most impacted: the displaced.

O objetivo desta tese foi avaliar a influências da exposição a diversos fatores de risco e ocorrência de infecção hospitalar (IH) e examinar fatores de risco relacionados às pneumonias associadas ao uso de ventilador mecânico (PAV) em crianças críticas. Usamos os métodos de estudo prospectivo envolvendo uma coorte de 268 crianças menores de três anos, realizado em unidade de pacientes graves, de janeiro de 1997 e setembro de 2000. Aplicou-se técnica de regressão de Poisson para estimar razões de risco e estratégia de abordagem hierárquica para identificar fatores de risco associados à IH. Apenas para 179 crianças críticas que usaram ventilador mecânico, aplicou-se a regressão de Cox para estimar razões de risco e identificar fatores de risco associados à PAV. Os resultados apresentaram 74 infecções hospitalares diagnosticadas no total, com taxa de incidência de 48,1 IH por 1000 pacientes-dia. Foi determinante para ocorrência de infecção hospitalar, idade superior a dois anos (Razão de Risco) [RR]: 2,66; intervalo de confiança [IC]: 95%: 1,46-4,58), uso de sonda vesical (RR: 2,92; IC 95%: 1,47-5,80), uso de nutrição parenteral (RR: 1,90; IC 95%: 1,15-3,13), realização de broncoscopia (RR: 1,84; IC 95%: 1,03-3,27), tempo de exposição ao cateter vascular central (RR: 2,36; IC 95%: 1,18-4,71) e ao ventilador mecânico (RR: 1,72; IC 95%: 0,94-3,15). Observou-se PAV em 29 crianças (16,3%), com taxa de incidência de 29,3 casos por 1000 dias de ventilação mecânica (IC 95%: 20,34-42,11), dos quais 50% dos eventos ocorreram até o quinto dia de ventilação. A taxa de risco diária aumentou até um máximo de 2,3%, observada no 7 dia de ventilação, e reduziu a partir daí. Foram fatores de risco para PAV na análise multivariada hierarquizada, idade acima de 1 ano (RR: 3,49; IC 95%; 1,64-7,45), cirurgia do aparelho digestivo (RR: 5,05; IC 95%; 2,17-11,78) e nutrição parenteral (RR: 2,68; IC 95%: 1,24-5,8). /exposição a antibióticos antes da internação conferiu proteção (RR: 0,29; IC 95%: 0,13-0,66). Concluímos que os resultados encontrados neste estudo indicam que a influência do tempo de exposição é determinante para a ocorrência de infecções hospitalares e está associado aos processos de cuidados do paciente crítico. Políticas institucionais direcionadas ao controles e prevenção das IH devem fazer de estratégias fundamentais para a qualidade da assistência e segurança do paciente internado. Vigilância de Saúde Pública e componentes longitudinais de estudo de fatores de risco para infecções hospitalares e para pneumonias associadas ao ventilador podem ajudar avaliar prognósticos e planejar e testar medidas preventivas, concentrando-se esforços na primeira semana de ventilação. / The objective of this thesis is evaluate the influence of exposure to some risk factors and the occurrence of nosocomial infections (NI) and to examine risk factors for ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) in critically ill children. We use the prospective study was carried out on 268 children less than three years old, at a pediatric intensive care unit, from January 1997 to September 2000. Poisson regression and hierarchized multivariate analysis were performed to estimate incidence rate ratios and to identify risk factors associated to nosocomial infections. To 178 children only, who were ventilated, Cox regression was performed to estimate hazards ration and to identify risk factors for VAP. Our results were 74 nosocomial infections were diagnosed, and the overall incidence of NI cases was 48.1 per 1000 patient-days. The final model showed as predictors of nosocomial infections were age over two (incidence rate ratio [IRR]: 2.66, confidence interval [CI] 95%:1.46- 4.58), urinary tract catheter (IRR: 2.92; CI 95%: 1.47-5.8), parenteral nutrition use (IRR: 1.90; CI 95%: 1.15-3.13), bronchoscope use (IRR: 1.84; CI 95%: 1.03-3.27), central catheters exposure time (IRR: 1,72; CI 95%: 0.94-3.15), 29 childrem (16.3%) developed VAP and the overall incidence was 29.3 per 1000 ventilator-days (OC 95%: 29.34-42.11); 50% of all cases had happened until day 5 of ventilator. The daily hazard risk increased to 2.2% at day 7, and decreased after that. Risk factors of VAP in hierarchized multivariate analysis were age over one (hazards ratio [HR]: 3.49; IC 95%: 1.64-7.45), digestive surgery (HR: 5.05; CI 95%: 2.17-11.78), parenteral nutrition (HR: 2.68; IC 95% 1.24-5.80). Exposure to antibiotics conferred protection (HR: 0.29; IC 95%: 0.13-0.65). Our conclusion is: the results suggest that the influence of the exposure time is determinant of nosocomial infections occurrence, and it is healthcare associated in critically ill patients. Institutional politics might be aimed at prevention and control activities, as strategy to promote healthcare quality and patient safety. Public health surveillance and longitudinal studies of risk factors for ventilator-associated pneumonias can help to assess prognosis, and devise and test preventive strategies, and efforts might be concentrated on the first week of ventilation assistance.

O objetivo desta tese foi avaliar a influências da exposição a diversos fatores de risco e ocorrência de infecção hospitalar (IH) e examinar fatores de risco relacionados às pneumonias associadas ao uso de ventilador mecânico (PAV) em crianças críticas. Usamos os métodos de estudo prospectivo envolvendo uma coorte de 268 crianças menores de três anos, realizado em unidade de pacientes graves, de janeiro de 1997 e setembro de 2000. Aplicou-se técnica de regressão de Poisson para estimar razões de risco e estratégia de abordagem hierárquica para identificar fatores de risco associados à IH. Apenas para 179 crianças críticas que usaram ventilador mecânico, aplicou-se a regressão de Cox para estimar razões de risco e identificar fatores de risco associados à PAV. Os resultados apresentaram 74 infecções hospitalares diagnosticadas no total, com taxa de incidência de 48,1 IH por 1000 pacientes-dia. Foi determinante para ocorrência de infecção hospitalar, idade superior a dois anos (Razão de Risco) [RR]: 2,66; intervalo de confiança [IC]: 95%: 1,46-4,58), uso de sonda vesical (RR: 2,92; IC 95%: 1,47-5,80), uso de nutrição parenteral (RR: 1,90; IC 95%: 1,15-3,13), realização de broncoscopia (RR: 1,84; IC 95%: 1,03-3,27), tempo de exposição ao cateter vascular central (RR: 2,36; IC 95%: 1,18-4,71) e ao ventilador mecânico (RR: 1,72; IC 95%: 0,94-3,15). Observou-se PAV em 29 crianças (16,3%), com taxa de incidência de 29,3 casos por 1000 dias de ventilação mecânica (IC 95%: 20,34-42,11), dos quais 50% dos eventos ocorreram até o quinto dia de ventilação. A taxa de risco diária aumentou até um máximo de 2,3%, observada no 7 dia de ventilação, e reduziu a partir daí. Foram fatores de risco para PAV na análise multivariada hierarquizada, idade acima de 1 ano (RR: 3,49; IC 95%; 1,64-7,45), cirurgia do aparelho digestivo (RR: 5,05; IC 95%; 2,17-11,78) e nutrição parenteral (RR: 2,68; IC 95%: 1,24-5,8). /exposição a antibióticos antes da internação conferiu proteção (RR: 0,29; IC 95%: 0,13-0,66). Concluímos que os resultados encontrados neste estudo indicam que a influência do tempo de exposição é determinante para a ocorrência de infecções hospitalares e está associado aos processos de cuidados do paciente crítico. Políticas institucionais direcionadas ao controles e prevenção das IH devem fazer de estratégias fundamentais para a qualidade da assistência e segurança do paciente internado. Vigilância de Saúde Pública e componentes longitudinais de estudo de fatores de risco para infecções hospitalares e para pneumonias associadas ao ventilador podem ajudar avaliar prognósticos e planejar e testar medidas preventivas, concentrando-se esforços na primeira semana de ventilação. / The objective of this thesis is evaluate the influence of exposure to some risk factors and the occurrence of nosocomial infections (NI) and to examine risk factors for ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) in critically ill children. We use the prospective study was carried out on 268 children less than three years old, at a pediatric intensive care unit, from January 1997 to September 2000. Poisson regression and hierarchized multivariate analysis were performed to estimate incidence rate ratios and to identify risk factors associated to nosocomial infections. To 178 children only, who were ventilated, Cox regression was performed to estimate hazards ration and to identify risk factors for VAP. Our results were 74 nosocomial infections were diagnosed, and the overall incidence of NI cases was 48.1 per 1000 patient-days. The final model showed as predictors of nosocomial infections were age over two (incidence rate ratio [IRR]: 2.66, confidence interval [CI] 95%:1.46- 4.58), urinary tract catheter (IRR: 2.92; CI 95%: 1.47-5.8), parenteral nutrition use (IRR: 1.90; CI 95%: 1.15-3.13), bronchoscope use (IRR: 1.84; CI 95%: 1.03-3.27), central catheters exposure time (IRR: 1,72; CI 95%: 0.94-3.15), 29 childrem (16.3%) developed VAP and the overall incidence was 29.3 per 1000 ventilator-days (OC 95%: 29.34-42.11); 50% of all cases had happened until day 5 of ventilator. The daily hazard risk increased to 2.2% at day 7, and decreased after that. Risk factors of VAP in hierarchized multivariate analysis were age over one (hazards ratio [HR]: 3.49; IC 95%: 1.64-7.45), digestive surgery (HR: 5.05; CI 95%: 2.17-11.78), parenteral nutrition (HR: 2.68; IC 95% 1.24-5.80). Exposure to antibiotics conferred protection (HR: 0.29; IC 95%: 0.13-0.65). Our conclusion is: the results suggest that the influence of the exposure time is determinant of nosocomial infections occurrence, and it is healthcare associated in critically ill patients. Institutional politics might be aimed at prevention and control activities, as strategy to promote healthcare quality and patient safety. Public health surveillance and longitudinal studies of risk factors for ventilator-associated pneumonias can help to assess prognosis, and devise and test preventive strategies, and efforts might be concentrated on the first week of ventilation assistance.

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