This study provides selected research findings on which decisions can be based in planning an in-school, publicly funded, Cree immersion program from kindergarten to grade 8 in Saskatchewan. The study was an analysis of language education research relating to the learner in immersion programs. Consequences of immersion education for student linguistic, psycho-social, and educational development were examined and reported. <p>Immersion programs for French, and to a lesser extent, for heritage languages in Canada, have been extensively researched. Immersion programs for Indian languages are few and are relatively unreported. There is, however, an increasing interest in the creation of immersion programs in Indian schools. <p> The analysis of research relating to publicly-funded French, heritage language, and Indian language immersion programs in Canada revealed support for the creation of an early total Cree immersion program. It could have neutral or positive effects on student linguistic, psycho-social, and educational development, under specific program conditions. The following consequences for students were projected: <p>1. a positive effect on Cree language proficiency. Native-like proficiency levels would not necessarily result. <br>2. a neutral or positive effect on cognitive development.<br>3. a positive effect on attitudes toward the Cree language and culture, and a strengthening of Indian identity. <br>4. a neutral or positive effect on self-concet. <br>5. a lessening of social distance between the generations.<p>6. a positive effect on attitudes toward language learning and the immersion experience. <br>7. a positive effect on student understanding of cultural, social, and political aspects of Indian/non-Indian relations.<br>8. a neutral effect on English language and literacy development. Temporary lags in English literacy skills could be expected until after the teaching of English reading. Skill levels could become equivalent to those of comparable students in regular programs within one school year, with the possible exception of spelling.<br>9. a neutral or positive effect on overall educational achievement. Greater understanding of their Indian culture, lowered drop-out rates, and improved work study skills could be predicted. <p> Certain program characteristics which were identified as essential if all of the projected neutral or positive consequences were to be realized include: <p>1. an early total immersion program model.<br> 2. an immersion centre setting.<br>3. introduction of Cree literacy before English literacy.<br>4. adequate Cree language resource materials, for all subjects and grades taught in Cree.<br>5. fluently bilingual and biliterate qualified teachers with specialized training in bilingual education.<br>6. subjects to be taught in Cree to be selected dependent on the availability of resource materials and qualified teachers.<br>7. a carefully planned and implemented program. <p>A Cree immersion program could result in enhanced cognitive and linguistic abilities to the extent that Cree were spoken in students' homes, and that students had opportunities to use Cree outside of the school. Under identified program conditions, early total Cree immersion could have at least neutral 'effects on student self-concept, cognitive development, English language development and academic achievement. It could have positive effects on student Cree language proficiency, attitudes toward the Cree language and culture, attitudes toward language learning, sociopolitical perceptions, communication within the family, retention rates, work study skills, and knowledge about Indian cultures. Cree proficiency attained by students might not be native-like, but could be at a level which would allow them to learn through Cree, and to continue learning the Cree language and culture.

This study provides selected research findings on which decisions can be based in planning an in-school, publicly funded, Cree immersion program from kindergarten to grade 8 in Saskatchewan. The study was an analysis of language education research relating to the learner in immersion programs. Consequences of immersion education for student linguistic, psycho-social, and educational development were examined and reported. Immersion programs for French, and to a lesser extent, for heritage languages in Canada, have been extensively researched. Immersion programs for Indian languages are few and are relatively unreported. There is, however, an increasing interest in the creation of immersion programs in Indian schools. The analysis of research relating to publicly-funded French, heritage language, and Indian language immersion programs in Canada revealed support for the creation of an early total Cree immersion program. It could have neutral or positive effects on student linguistic, psycho-social, and educational development, under specific program conditions. The following consequences for students were projected: 1. a positive effect on Cree language proficiency. Native-like proficiency levels would not necessarily result. 2. a neutral or positive effect on cognitive development.3. a positive effect on attitudes toward the Cree language and culture, and a strengthening of Indian identity. 4. a neutral or positive effect on self-concet. 5. a lessening of social distance between the generations.6. a positive effect on attitudes toward language learning and the immersion experience. 7. a positive effect on student understanding of cultural, social, and political aspects of Indian/non-Indian relations.8. a neutral effect on English language and literacy development. Temporary lags in English literacy skills could be expected until after the teaching of English reading. Skill levels could become equivalent to those of comparable students in regular programs within one school year, with the possible exception of spelling.9. a neutral or positive effect on overall educational achievement. Greater understanding of their Indian culture, lowered drop-out rates, and improved work study skills could be predicted. Certain program characteristics which were identified as essential if all of the projected neutral or positive consequences were to be realized include: 1. an early total immersion program model. 2. an immersion centre setting.3. introduction of Cree literacy before English literacy.4. adequate Cree language resource materials, for all subjects and grades taught in Cree.5. fluently bilingual and biliterate qualified teachers with specialized training in bilingual education.6. subjects to be taught in Cree to be selected dependent on the availability of resource materials and qualified teachers.7. a carefully planned and implemented program. A Cree immersion program could result in enhanced cognitive and linguistic abilities to the extent that Cree were spoken in students' homes, and that students had opportunities to use Cree outside of the school. Under identified program conditions, early total Cree immersion could have at least neutral 'effects on student self-concept, cognitive development, English language development and academic achievement. It could have positive effects on student Cree language proficiency, attitudes toward the Cree language and culture, attitudes toward language learning, sociopolitical perceptions, communication within the family, retention rates, work study skills, and knowledge about Indian cultures. Cree proficiency attained by students might not be native-like, but could be at a level which would allow them to learn through Cree, and to continue learning the Cree language and culture.

Abstract The starting point of this formal-theoretical thesis is the didactic dilemma of language immersion. This means the emphasis on linguistics in prevailing research tradition, as well as the lack of theoretical basis in teaching practice. The thesis in theory consists of two parts and a didactic model, presented in the end. The base of the thesis structure and content have been the didactic questions what, why and how. The realization of these questions varies in different parts of the thesis from subject related to general didactics. The thesis analyses the didactic image of Swedish language immersion and from this concludes a culture-oriented didactic model, cultural pedagogic model. The basic elements of language immersion (functionality, overall coherence of comprehending information, the aim to develop child's linguistic awareness) form a natural part of cultural pedagogic model. Of the basic elements of language immersion can be concluded the basic factors of the model – culture, language, information, and (social) behaviour – which need to be taken account of equally in order to implement educational teaching. In the background of cultural pedagogic approach there is a certain concept of the relationship between a community and an individual. On community level it is a question of an identity being formed as well as individual's identification on the essence of prevailing culture. The problems of identity include the varied and complex values of the environment, which present the individual with challenges to which school must be able to respond. School has to develop its aims to support child's identity and self perception, both from the content and the operational point of view. When we ask, referring to Dewey's (1916) views, where the aim of the education is, answer is around us, in our environment. For this reason school should aim its operation to consider cultural factors. School operation should be both agreeable and significant. The basis needs to lie on considering the significant life functions in communication. Functionality as a word includes the possibility to pay attention to real individuality in education. Communication includes a concept of the essence of social behaviour. When we consider individual problems in supporting growth, it's a question of supporting child's inner personality, accepting child's essence. In practice adapting social and individual aspects in school life is enabled by uniting contents, such as in theme teaching. On functional level these culturally significant themes are implemented by means of project method. Making these didactically coherent curriculum themes concrete is the essential meaning of this thesis. / Tiivistelmä Tutkimuksen lähtökohtana on kielikylpyopetuksen didaktinen ongelma. Tällä tarkoitetaan vallitsevan tutkimustradition lingvistiikkapainotteisuutta sekä opetuksen käytäntöjen pedagogis-teoreettista perustelemattomuutta. Tutkimus on otteeltaan formaalis-teoreettinen ja se koostuu teoreettisesti kahdesta osasta sekä lopussa esitettävästä didaktisesta mallintamisesta. Tutkimuksen rakennetta jäsentävänä sekä sisältöä ohjaavana lähtökohtana ovat olleet didaktiset peruskysymykset mitä, miksi ja miten. Kysymysten konkretisointi työn eri osissa vaihtelee ainedidaktisesta yleisdidaktiseen. Tutkimuksessa jäsennetään teoreettisesti ruotsin kielen kielikylpyopetuksen didaktista kuvaa sekä johdetaan kulttuurisesti orientoitunut didaktinen malli, <b>kulttuuripedagoginen malli</b> . Kielikylpyopetuksen didaktiset peruselementit (toiminnallisuus, tiedonkäsityksen kokonaisvaltaisuus, lapsen kielellisen tietoisuuden kehittäminen) soveltuvat luontevasti osaksi kulttuuripedagogista ajattelutapaa. Näistä voidaan johtaa kulttuuripedagogisen mallin perustekijät – kulttuuri, kieli, tieto ja (sosiaalinen)toiminta – joiden tasapainoinen huomiointi opetuksessa mahdollistaa kasvattavan opetuksen toteuttamisen. Kulttuuripedagogisen ajattelutavan taustalla on tietty käsitys yhteisön ja yksilön välisestä suhteesta. Yhteisötasolla kyse on identiteetin muodostumisesta ja yksilön identifioitumisesta vallitsevan kulttuurin olemukseen. Identiteettiproblematiikkaan liittyy ympäristön moniarvoisuus ja kompleksisuus, jonka yksilölle so. lapselle asettamiin haasteisiin koulun on pystyttävä vastaaman. Koulun olisi kehitettävä sisällöllisiä ja toiminnallisia tavoitteitaan lapsen identiteettiä ja minuutta tukeviksi. Kun kysymme Deweyn (1916) näkemyksiin viitaten, missä kasvatuksen tavoite "sijaitsee", vastaus on ympärillämme, ympäristössämme. Siksi koulutoiminnan tulisi suuntautua kulttuuristen tekijöitten käsittelylle. Mielekkyyden lisäksi koulutoiminnan on oltava merkityksellistä. Sen on perustuttava kulttuurisesti merkityksellisten elämäntoimintojen käsittelyyn yksilöitten välisessä kommunikaatiossa. Toiminnallisuus sanana sisältää mahdollisuuden todellisen yksilöllisyyden huomiointiin opetuksessa. Kommunikaatio puolestaan sisältää käsityksen sosiaalisen toiminnan olemuksesta. Kun pohdimme yksilön problematiikkaa kasvun tukemisessa, kyse on lapsen sisäisen olemuksellisuuden tukemisesta, lapsen essentian hyväksymisestä. Kulttuuripedagogisen näkemyksen mukaan yhteiseen tavoitteeseen pyrkiminen, kulttuurisesti merkityksellisten elämäntoimintojen parissa, aidossa sosiaalisessa toiminnassa, antaa jokaiselle mahdollisuuden oman olemuksellisuuden toteuttamiseen. Käytännössä sosiaalisen ja yksilöllisyyden yhteensovittamisen koulun toiminnoissa mahdollistuu opetuksen sisällöllisen eheyttämisen, kuten teemakokonaisuuksien avulla. Toiminnallisesti näiden kulttuurisesti merkityksellisten teemojen toteuttaminen tapahtuu projektimetodin avulla. Tämän didaktisesti kokonaisvaltaisen ja opetussuunnitelmallisen tematiikan konkretisointi on tutkimuksen keskeinen tarkoitus.

Students from dual language immersion (DLI) classrooms are required to learn the language through content. However, some students have not yet developed these abilities by the time they start fourth grade. Thus, to fully comprehend content such as science, students need stronger reading and writing abilities in the second language (L2). To help stakeholders have a better understanding on how to effectively help students throughout this process, this action research studied the effectiveness of integrating literacy with science and mobile assisted language learning (MALL). Findings showed that the integrations of literacy, science and MALL were effective with statistically significant results in science and reading. These findings also yielded pedagogical implications about the importance of considering students' language background and gender, as well as the use of MALL when teaching and planning the curriculum for DLI classrooms.

As more second-language acquisition research is published about the optimal age to begin foreign language instruction, and the best methods for teaching foreign languages, many colleges and universities are seeking to create intensive immersion programs which would prepare prospective students for the rigors of their language programs and serve as a productive language-learning environment. One such program, the Middlebury-Monterey Language Academy, is based on the highly successful summer language schools model. This research isolates the components which would help create successful, intensive Arabic immersion programs. Specifically, this thesis asks: How can an institution create a successful Arabic immersion learning environment for high school students? To answer this question, this thesis reviews current literature in the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA), includes personal observations about the program and analyzes responses to surveys administered to two groups of stakeholders, namely students, and teachers/resident assistants. After the descriptive section, the thesis proposes a curricular framework which encompasses the main components of the curriculum (including goals, teacher and learner training, instructional materials, and native versus target language use). This framework is presented as a model to help teachers and other administrators as they try to set up new Arabic programs for high school students. / text

L’arménien occidental est classé comme langue en danger depuis 2010, mais il est enseigné dans un réseau d’écoles arméniennes à travers une diaspora mondiale, crée par un génocide en 1915. Les inscriptions sont en déclin dans les écoles du Moyen-Orient depuis quatre décennies, alors qu’en France on observe un développement des écoles privées. Toutes les écoles sont confrontées à une culture éducative en évolution. Les données sont collectées à Beyrouth, Amman, Paris et Marseille, et des participants venant d’Alep. L’approche est interdisciplinaire, poststructuraliste et constructiviste, dans le but de comprendre le rôle des politiques scolaires dans l’attractivité des écoles et dans la transmission linguistique et dans la promotion de la vitalité de la langue dans chaque contexte. L’analyse de discours est employée pour analyser les représentations de la langue et des écoles aux niveaux personnel et structurel. Les théories de la vitalité ethnolinguistique et de la socialisation linguistique aident à éclairer les liens entre la politique, le choix des parents, et la vitalité de la langue. Le choix des parents est approché du point de vue de la psychologie de la consommation, et finalement c’est la notion de l’habitus (de Bourdieu) qui éclaire le mieux les dynamiques de ce choix et pourquoi il constitue souvent une rupture définitive avec l’institution. L’étude montre que les politiques au-delà de l’institutionnel ont moins d’influence sur le maintien de la langue que l’inscription à l’école et les discours dominants. Des préconisations sont formulées pour des changements de la politique scolaire et de la pédagogie. / Western Armenian was declared “definitely endangered” in 2010, although the language is taught in private Armenian schools across a global diaspora created by a genocide in 1915. Enrollment in Armenian schools in the Middle East has been declining for four decades, while the Armenian schools of France are growing & evolving & all are facing a rapidly changing educational climate. Conducted in Beirut, Amman, Paris & Marseille, and involving participants from Aleppo, this study analyzes data from more than 100 diasporan Armenians and a dozen schools. An interdisciplinary, post-structuralist & constructivist approach is taken to understanding the roles of school policies in attracting parents to Armenian schools, in effectively transmitting the language to students, & promoting the vitality of the language in each of the four contexts. Discourse Analysis is applied to both structural & personal representations of the language & of the schools. Ethnolinguistic Vitality & Language Socialization theories are used to understand the connections between policy, parent school choice & the wider vitality of the language. Parent school choice is looked at in terms of consumer psychology, and ultimately Bourdieu’s concept of habitus is the most apt for explaining why Armenian parents choose non-Armenian schools, & why this often becomes a definitive family break from the institution. Policy above the school level is found to have less impact on vitality than school enrollment & dominant discourses on language maintenance. Recommendations are made for policies & pedagogy.

L’arménien occidental est classé comme langue en danger depuis 2010, mais il est enseigné dans un réseau d’écoles arméniennes à travers une diaspora mondiale, crée par un génocide en 1915. Les inscriptions sont en déclin dans les écoles du Moyen-Orient depuis quatre décennies, alors qu’en France on observe un développement des écoles privées. Toutes les écoles sont confrontées à une culture éducative en évolution. Les données sont collectées à Beyrouth, Amman, Paris et Marseille, et des participants venant d’Alep. L’approche est interdisciplinaire, poststructuraliste et constructiviste, dans le but de comprendre le rôle des politiques scolaires dans l’attractivité des écoles et dans la transmission linguistique et dans la promotion de la vitalité de la langue dans chaque contexte. L’analyse de discours est employée pour analyser les représentations de la langue et des écoles aux niveaux personnel et structurel. Les théories de la vitalité ethnolinguistique et de la socialisation linguistique aident à éclairer les liens entre la politique, le choix des parents, et la vitalité de la langue. Le choix des parents est approché du point de vue de la psychologie de la consommation, et finalement c’est la notion de l’habitus (de Bourdieu) qui éclaire le mieux les dynamiques de ce choix et pourquoi il constitue souvent une rupture définitive avec l’institution. L’étude montre que les politiques au-delà de l’institutionnel ont moins d’influence sur le maintien de la langue que l’inscription à l’école et les discours dominants. Des préconisations sont formulées pour des changements de la politique scolaire et de la pédagogie. / Western Armenian was declared “definitely endangered” in 2010, although the language is taught in private Armenian schools across a global diaspora created by a genocide in 1915. Enrollment in Armenian schools in the Middle East has been declining for four decades, while the Armenian schools of France are growing & evolving & all are facing a rapidly changing educational climate. Conducted in Beirut, Amman, Paris & Marseille, and involving participants from Aleppo, this study analyzes data from more than 100 diasporan Armenians and a dozen schools. An interdisciplinary, post-structuralist & constructivist approach is taken to understanding the roles of school policies in attracting parents to Armenian schools, in effectively transmitting the language to students, & promoting the vitality of the language in each of the four contexts. Discourse Analysis is applied to both structural & personal representations of the language & of the schools. Ethnolinguistic Vitality & Language Socialization theories are used to understand the connections between policy, parent school choice & the wider vitality of the language. Parent school choice is looked at in terms of consumer psychology, and ultimately Bourdieu’s concept of habitus is the most apt for explaining why Armenian parents choose non-Armenian schools, & why this often becomes a definitive family break from the institution. Policy above the school level is found to have less impact on vitality than school enrollment & dominant discourses on language maintenance. Recommendations are made for policies & pedagogy.

L’arménien occidental est classé comme langue en danger depuis 2010, mais il est enseigné dans un réseau d’écoles arméniennes à travers une diaspora mondiale, crée par un génocide en 1915. Les inscriptions sont en déclin dans les écoles du Moyen-Orient depuis quatre décennies, alors qu’en France on observe un développement des écoles privées. Toutes les écoles sont confrontées à une culture éducative en évolution. Les données sont collectées à Beyrouth, Amman, Paris et Marseille, et des participants venant d’Alep. L’approche est interdisciplinaire, poststructuraliste et constructiviste, dans le but de comprendre le rôle des politiques scolaires dans l’attractivité des écoles et dans la transmission linguistique et dans la promotion de la vitalité de la langue dans chaque contexte. L’analyse de discours est employée pour analyser les représentations de la langue et des écoles aux niveaux personnel et structurel. Les théories de la vitalité ethnolinguistique et de la socialisation linguistique aident à éclairer les liens entre la politique, le choix des parents, et la vitalité de la langue. Le choix des parents est approché du point de vue de la psychologie de la consommation, et finalement c’est la notion de l’habitus (de Bourdieu) qui éclaire le mieux les dynamiques de ce choix et pourquoi il constitue souvent une rupture définitive avec l’institution. L’étude montre que les politiques au-delà de l’institutionnel ont moins d’influence sur le maintien de la langue que l’inscription à l’école et les discours dominants. Des préconisations sont formulées pour des changements de la politique scolaire et de la pédagogie. / Western Armenian was declared “definitely endangered” in 2010, although the language is taught in private Armenian schools across a global diaspora created by a genocide in 1915. Enrollment in Armenian schools in the Middle East has been declining for four decades, while the Armenian schools of France are growing & evolving & all are facing a rapidly changing educational climate. Conducted in Beirut, Amman, Paris & Marseille, and involving participants from Aleppo, this study analyzes data from more than 100 diasporan Armenians and a dozen schools. An interdisciplinary, post-structuralist & constructivist approach is taken to understanding the roles of school policies in attracting parents to Armenian schools, in effectively transmitting the language to students, & promoting the vitality of the language in each of the four contexts. Discourse Analysis is applied to both structural & personal representations of the language & of the schools. Ethnolinguistic Vitality & Language Socialization theories are used to understand the connections between policy, parent school choice & the wider vitality of the language. Parent school choice is looked at in terms of consumer psychology, and ultimately Bourdieu’s concept of habitus is the most apt for explaining why Armenian parents choose non-Armenian schools, & why this often becomes a definitive family break from the institution. Policy above the school level is found to have less impact on vitality than school enrollment & dominant discourses on language maintenance. Recommendations are made for policies & pedagogy.

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