This is an autoethnographic account of my 1000km journey across The Camino Via de la Plata, framed within transpersonal theory. From my personal account of a peak experience on The Way, this spiritual inquiry attempts to connect myself and the reader to insights into transformation and living through embodied writing while contributing to the exploration of personal flourishing and growth in leisure studies. This process involved moving into and through Romanyshyn’s (2007) six orphic moments found in re-search processes with soul in mind. I then unfold my journey along the Camino and deepen this inquiry by engaging literature that help to explore spiritual aspects of my journey on the Camino. Leisure inquiry frames this transpersonal peak experience in a number of ways: it is an act of empowerment (Arai, 1997), focal practice (Arai & Pedlar, 2000), resistance (Shaw, 2001, 2007), and an experience of liminality (Cody, 2012) with transformation occurring at the flux of it all.

Tourism and adoption are separate subjects, which are both well-studied. Studies that look at adoption and tourism together are hard to find. Generally, these studies are written from a social work perspective rather than a tourism perspective. Works by Muller, Gibs and Ariely (2003); Passmore (2005); and Sachdev (1991) are examples of these types of studies. However there is a small amount of research written from a tourism perspective, which focuses on adult adoptees that travel back to their homeland to explore their roots. Amongst tour operators, these types of tours are known as Adoption Homeland Tours and cater specifically to adoptees to show them the place and culture of their biological roots. As Sachdev (1992) points out, “since the professionals have only recently directed their attention to the phenomenon of search and reunion between adoptees and their biological parents, research studies are exceedingly limited” (p. 54). This study aims to address this under-represented area of tourism research by providing a baseline understanding of the subject as understood through a phenomenological perspective and bring forward the term “Adoption Homeland Tours” to the academic community. Moreover, this study aims to explore the meanings adoption homeland tourists attribute to their experiences and to contextualize the findings within broader academic approaches towards understanding dynamics which influence adult adoptees’ understanding of self through tourism experiences.

This research explores feelings of obligation to volunteer, which lie at the interface of volunteering as simultaneously individual and collective and challenge traditional understandings of volunteering as leisure. The study examined volunteering within the context of communitarianism, particularly how collective outcomes of volunteering are related to feelings of obligation to volunteer. Phase one of this research focused on scale creation of a measure assessing feelings of obligation in the context of volunteerism. Using exploratory factor analyses of data from a student sample, this first phase yielded two measures: an 18-item Obligation to Volunteer as Commitment measure (OVC), encompassing dimensions of reward, affective attachment, flexibility, and side bets; and a 14-item Obligation to Volunteer as Duty measure (OVD), encompassing the dimensions of expectation, burden, and constraint. In phase two, survey research was conducted with 300 volunteers at ten community organizations. These new measures were used to examine relationships between obligation to volunteer and the value orientations of individualism and collectivism, the experience of volunteering as serious leisure, and the community characteristics of sense of community and social cohesion. Both individualism and collectivism were associated with the commitment but not the duty dimension of feelings of obligation, and both value orientations, but particularly individualism, was linked to serious leisure. Serious leisure very closely aligned with the commitment aspect of obligation as well as sense of community and social cohesion, thus emerging as a possible pathway for nurturing sense of community in a culture of individualism. Correlation and hierarchical regression analyses link the commitment aspect of obligation to sense of community and social cohesion. Feelings of duty to volunteer, in contrast, were inversely related to sense of community. Thus, the nature of feelings of obligation related to volunteering as commitment or duty have significant implications for the collective outcomes of volunteering, particularly sense of community. Also notable are the strong theoretical and empirical relationships between the OVC scale and serious leisure, which suggest that the newly-developed commitment scale could be considered a measure of the agreeable obligation that accompanies serious leisure pursuits.

The purpose of this research is to explore the communication and interaction between westerners and Chinese people in western bars in the touristic town of Yangshuo in southern China. Yangshuo is worldly famous for its breath-taking Karst Mountains, rice fields and water buffalos. It has attracted millions of visitors annually, both domestic and international. The tourist center of Yangshuo consists of a main street, West Street, and many other small streets around it. In recent years, bars and night clubs have been established, bringing a more modern and western atmosphere to the main tourist streets that are paved in marble and lined with ancient buildings. This research is focused on bars, western bars in particular, as a unique setting for intercultural communication and interaction. First of all, this research introduces a background of intercultural communication definitions, the link between bars and tourism in China, as well as international tourism in China. With the goal of understanding the intercultural phenomena in bars through conversations and observations, I explored the role of bars in the community, the social and intercultural situations in bars, and the reflection and outcome of those communication and interaction. Field work was conducted in July and August 2010, by using both qualitative and quantitative research methods: questionnaire survey and ethnographic participant observation. I was able to obtain a broad perception of the subject as well as detailed description from participants, including myself. A broad range of literature related to bars and spaces in leisure and tourism, as well as in the fields of intercultural communication, intercultural host-guest relationship in tourism, tourism and cultural understanding, and tourist experience were reviewed. The gaps in the literature were identified. Limited research was done by addressing the actual situations of intercultural communication and linking the social and intercultural theories with actual practice, especially in a tourism context. Also, the role of western bars, as a new form of recreational, cultural and social space in China needed more attention. Chapter four and five present major findings of this research. Informants were divided into five groups: western tourists, local westerners (westerners who have become residents), Chinese tourists, Chinese students studying English in Yangshuo, and local residents. Preliminary findings from questionnaire survey indicate that westerners and Chinese people have difference reasons for visiting Yangshuo and going to bars. Bars have both social and recreational functions for westerners but are of less interest to and have more limited functions as attractions to Chinese tourists. Local residents have the least interest in western bars but Chinese students often go to them, mainly to practice English with foreigners. Detailed analysis of qualitative data suggests intercultural communication and interaction have difference purposes and styles for the different groups. Students, locals who work in the bars and local westerners have most contact with western tourists. Chinese tourists tend to interact with westerners in non-verbal ways, such as in games and photo-taking. Language is a major communication barrier but westerners made more effort to overcome this, reflecting both desire and need as visitors in a foreign land. The research findings can seek theoretical explanation through many social and intercultural theories. They suggest tourist-host interaction and communication has been overrated, especially when tourists are travelling in a different culture. The level of contact and cultural understanding is relatively superficial, but more meaningful than mere commercial exchanges. The trend of globalization and cultural homogeneity was well recognized by both cultural groups. The acknowledgement of cultural difference and interaction between customers should be encouraged and facilitated in bars, in order to create an authentic bar experience and nurture effective intercultural communication.

Climate change has been referred to as the ‘greatest challenge to the sustainability of the global tourism industry in the 21st century’ (UNWTO-UNEP-WMO, 2008). As a result, climate change is one of the most widely discussed environmental and sustainable development topics today. The winter tourism industry has been repeatedly identified as being vulnerable to climate change. The implications for winter tourism include a lack of snow in winter sport destinations, increased snowmaking and operational costs, shorter winter sports season, decreased visitation, and the potential for a loss of ski area operations. The intent of this study was to understand the adaptive behaviours of skiers/snowboarders taken in response to climate conditions. More specifically the objectives of this research were: to examine how skiers/snowboarders have responded to changing snow conditions in the past as well as how they may react in the future, to understand the role of substitution (time, place, activity) within specific behavioural responses to both past and future snow conditions, and to examine the extent to which activity commitment and place loyalty influence climate-induced behavioural change. Skier/snowboarder surveys were distributed at seven resorts in the New England states of Vermont and New Hampshire during the winter months of February and March 2010. A total of 572 surveys was collected and analyzed. The research findings revealed that skiers and snowboarders in New England are very loyal to their preferred winter resorts and are extremely loyal to the New England region. Only a small percentage of respondents said that they would travel outside New England to find better snow conditions. The level of a skier’s/snowboarder’s involvement in the sport, as well as their level of destination loyalty were also found to be important determinants of substitution behaviors. As climate change causes more significant changes to the mountain landscape and snow conditions, understanding how different tourist segments react to climate change and related environmental change is important for various tourism stakeholders: ski resort managers, nearby communities and also states that are dependent on this winter tourism revenue.

Women who have been incarcerated are disadvantaged in many respects as they enter community (Pedlar, Arai, Yuen, & Fortune, 2008). When putting their lives back together upon release they typically face tremendous hardships which are often intensified by the absence of healthy and supportive relationships (Richie, 2001). Hannah-Moffatt (2000) identified several gender-specific barriers facing women in prison that impede their chances for inclusion once they enter community. Women in prison, she explained, are often poorly educated, unemployed, and many have survived some form of physical or sexual abuse. Furthermore, feelings of guilt, fear, anxiety, and alienation are often compounded when women are apprehended and sentenced. This combination of challenges tends to produce a group of women with low self-esteem who will have difficulty readjusting in the community and are at risk of being socially isolated and excluded (Hannah-Moffatt, 2000; Maidment, 2006; Pollack, 2008). Structural determinants and individual agency both lie at the heart of social inclusion (Dominelli, 2005; Lister, 2000). Often overlooked in the literature is the fact that women who have been incarcerated have agency and possess a capacity to resist, overcome oppression, and counteract exclusion. As I embarked on this research project, an emphasis on women’s capacity was both a starting point and rationale for adopting a participatory approach. Very little is known about how women’s experiences with inclusion or exclusion shape their entry process. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine inclusion from the perspective of women entering community after release from a federal prison. Using a feminist participatory action research (FPAR) approach guided by anti-oppressive research (AOR) as my theoretical framework, I asked women living in community in a region of southern Ontario and who had been incarcerated to come together to discuss ideas around inclusion and explore ways to foster a more inclusive environment. This research project was rooted in a concern for social justice. Hall (2005) argues that negotiating the discourse of inclusion and exclusion requires a critical re-imagining of inclusion as social justice. Consequently, this study was designed to encourage dialogue and a critical re-imagining of what inclusion means among women entering community after incarceration, with an emphasis on collaborative learning. Plans and strategies were shaped and altered based on decisions of the research team and resulted in the development of three distinct phases of research involving team meetings, individual conversations, and engagement in photovoice. Data explored in each phase of the project, as well as my own reflexive knowledge acquired through ongoing critical self-reflection, provided insight into the complexities of difference, power, and identity. These findings are presented in four chapters beginning with a description of how the FPAR process based on principles of inclusion, participation, action, and social change unfolded. Then, themes were identified which revealed the swings of a FPAR process including: assumptions of collective identity and difference impede inclusion and participation, grappling with tensions around partnerships and power, and negotiating identity and resisting stigma. Findings also explored the contested nature of community and its role in inclusion. This chapter describes the kind of community women experienced before and after incarceration. Themes of feeling pushed out of community, being pulled into community, and negotiating issues of responsibility upon community entry highlight the ambiguous nature of community and social inclusion for women who have broken the law. Deep exclusion experienced by women who have been placed outside of community and sent to prison is arguably unparalleled, and this study was ultimately concerned with society’s tendency to exclude people based on difference. Experiences of inclusion/exclusion are often a result of normative social beliefs that construct difference as “less than” (Moosa-Mitha, 2005). Indeed when difference is viewed negatively, it often results in the exclusion and marginalization of those who are defined as the other (Woodward, 1997). Alternatively, social inclusion involves respect for differences and the removal of barriers to participate in public life (Salojee, 2005). When women in this study felt free to participate in the life of their community in ways that did not undermine their sense of self and their differences they were in the process of being included. Supportive relationships and judgment free spaces seemed to remove pressures for women to conform to dominant expectations of behaviour to gain acceptance. Findings from this study suggest we need to create space for difference and social inclusion to co-exist in community. This space would be one that centres difference, promotes social justice, values different forms and levels of participation, acknowledges that relationships grow and change over time, interrogates taken for granted assumptions of power and privilege, and emphasizes dialoguing through difference.

Imposing the principles of sustainable development on medical tourism is vital to maintaining the three pillars of a strong nation, namely, the environment, the economy, and the local community. The three research objectives of this thesis are: 1) to determine the primary factors that motivate foreign patients to travel abroad for medical services; 2) to define the role that stakeholders play for developing the medical tourism sector; and 3) to develop an implementable framework for establishing a sustainable medical facility. These objectives help lay the foundations for a medical tourism facility that would respond well to the future demands of international patients, and would remain competitive with other medical facilities in the global market while also improving local quality-of-life and remaining within ecological constraints. Therefore, this research adopts a case study methodology to examine a framework developed through the literature review to determine how it fits in reality. In addition, this research provides a starting point to define further the primary roles of the medical tourism network for developing the medical tourism sector.

This study addresses the measurement of satisfaction. In doing so, it proposes a hypothetical conceptual framework for examining visitors’ satisfaction with their experiences in nature-based settings. Visitors’ overall satisfaction with their experiences was examined in terms of its relationships to visitors’ satisfaction with various site attributes, to visitors’ perceived importance of interpretive programs to learning, and how it is affected by visitors’ age, gender (male or female) and visitation pattern. The responses of 1309 Visitor Information Program (VIP) surveys returned by visitors to two national sites in Nova Scotia (Port Royal National Historic Site and Kejimkujik National Park and National Historic Site) provided the data for this study’s investigation. Secondary data analyses revealed that visitors’ satisfaction with the site attributes has the strongest effect on their overall satisfaction with their experiences. While visitors’ perceived importance to learning was also found to be positively correlated to overall experience satisfaction, when other variable are taken into consideration, its effect on overall satisfaction was found not to be statistically significant. Amongst these variables, gender was found to explain a significant amount of variance in visitors’ overall satisfaction with experiences in nature-based settings. Moreover, visitors of different age groups differ significantly in their perceptions of importance of interpretation to learning, and in their satisfaction levels. Although the findings show high levels of satisfaction at both sites, these are taken with caution. A discussion of the issues related to the measurement of satisfaction is provided, along with recommendations for a more discriminant, valid and reliable satisfaction measurement instrument.

Volunteer tourism, a sub-sector of the tourism industry, is growing at an accelerated pace subsequently creating socio-cultural, political, cultural, and environmental impacts. Current tourism literature suggests volunteer tourism provides opportunities for participants to facilitate building relationships with like-minded volunteers and encourages consciousness-raising experiences (McGehee & Santos, 2005). Furthermore, volunteer tourism has been shown to foster cross-cultural understanding between participants and hosts (Raymond & Hall, 2008; McIntosh & Zahra, 2008). However, researchers question the laudable aims of volunteer tourism; indicating the presence of this type of tourism creates social and power struggles within local destination communities (Guttentag, 2009, Sin, 2010). Higgins-Desbiolles (2006) claims the transformative capacities of tourism are overshadowed by industry attributes of tourism. To use tourism as a positive engine for social, cultural, environmental, and political change, it would be necessary to promote touristic experiences that encompass a transformative ethos. My exploration of organic volunteering within this thesis illuminates the transformative capacities of these touristic experiences and contributes to the expanding horizons of volunteer tourism literature. This hermeneutic phenomenological study explores experiences of organic volunteering and what these experiences mean to the volunteers. Gadamer’s (2004) hermeneutic phenomenology provided me the opportunity to develop a deep understanding of the meaning of organic volunteering experiences studied in Argentina. Using interviews and participation observation, I explored meanings of organic volunteering, while I also considered volunteers’ historicity, or pre-understandings, of these experiences. Data analysis revealed the emergent essential structure of “Opening to living in interconnectedness.” Interconnectedness within organic volunteering is embodied in six essences of reconnecting, exchanging knowledge, being in nature, bonding with others, consciousness-raising, and transforming. My research reinforces what many organizations’ claim; volunteer experiences improve global citizenship and participants desire to become more involved in future activism upon their return home.

This narrative inquiry explores therapeutic relationships in the practice of recreation therapy. Narratives were generated in Recreation Therapy’s self-reflective case review process at Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre—a process developed to support team engagement in reflections on their therapeutic relationships. In total, three self-reflective case reviews were explored, and for each case review, four layers of analysis occurred. The first two layers used narrative analysis to restory reflections of the case review leader (layer one) and then reflections within the recreation therapy team (layer two). The third and fourth layers used analysis of narrative to explore theoretical ideas from person-centred care emerging inductively in the text (layer three), and then to restory the previous narratives using a relational theory lens (layer four). Exploration revealed the self-reflective case review process also strengthens therapeutic relationships within the recreation therapy team. In the recreation therapists’ narratives we hear relational notions of connection, disconnection, reconnection, mutuality, mutual empathy, authenticity, vulnerability, and support. This study engaged recreation therapists in an act of critical pedagogy as they engaged in critical self-reflection by exploring across layers of narrative that story their therapeutic relationships. The self-reflective case review process creates opportunity for the recreation therapy team to recognize, identify and name their experiences within therapeutic relationships, and to find their voices in the medical context of a hospital setting. When engaging in self-reflective processes, recreation therapy moves further away from treating individuals as objects, shifting practice toward connection and mutuality in therapeutic relationships.