<p>Procurement in public and non-public organisations has the potential to influence product development towards more environmentally preferable products. In 2003, public procurement in Sweden was 28% of GDP. Different types of approaches can contribute some knowledge and thereby facilitate the choice of environmentally preferable products. The thesis focuses on procurement in Swedish Defence. According to a decision by the Swedish government in 1998, the Swedish Armed Forces (SAF) and Defence Materiel Administration (FMV) are required to take environmental consideration in all phases of the acquisition process. The importance of a life cycle perspective is stressed in several SAF and FMV environmental documents. The starting point of this thesis was that environmental consideration should be taken in the Swedish acquisition of defence materiel, considering the whole life cycle of products. The aim was to produce suggestions for how this can be done.</p><p>In order to make this suggestion some Ecodesign tools were reviewed and evaluated and two methods for simplified Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) were compared. Suggestions of tools and methodology recommendations for environmentally preferable procurement in the Swedish defence are presented. For this purpose qualitative and/or simplified LCAs were suggested. The suggestions have been evaluated through interviews with actors in the process. When a simplified LCA is needed, the MECO assessment is recommended. Methodology recommendations for use of the MECO method in the Swedish Defence are presented. LCA is an appropriate tool for taking environmental consideration into the acquisition process, since it focuses on a product and includes its life cycle. If the environmental work lacks a life cycle perspective, there is a risk that the most significant aspects will not be considered. Four areas for use of LCA in the acquisition process were identified: Learning about environmental aspects of the product; fulfilling requirements from customers; setting environmental requirements; and choosing between alternatives.</p><p>The actors interviewed were interested in using LCA methods, but there is a need for an initiative by one or several actors if the method is to be used regularly in the process. It is important that the results are communicated within the organisations involved in the procurement process. Environmental consideration should preferably be taken early in the acquisition process and environmental questions should be integrated into other activities of the organisations involved in the procurement process. Such work would be facilitated if there were greater cooperation between the procuring and environmental units, in this case at FMV, SAF and the Swedish Ministry of Defence.</p> / QC 20100616

<p>Det särskilda sektorsansvaret är en ordning inom miljöpolitiken som innebär att varje sektor har ansvar för att hantera de miljöproblem som orsakas inom sektorn. På grund av detta ansvar finns ett behov av att kartlägga miljöproblem från sektorer, att identifiera de viktigaste problemen och att hitta strategier för att minska miljöpåverkan. Jordbrukssektorn och energisektorn är två sektorer som orsakar stor miljöpåverkan, vilket gör dem intressanta som fallstudier.</p><p>För att undersöka miljöpåverkan och möjligheten att minska denna i de båda sektorerna används ett systemanalytiskt perspektiv. Ett sådant angreppssätt ger möjlighet att analysera frågorna på ett mer genomgripande sätt, så att problemen inte endast förflyttas och istället skapar problem på andra håll i världen eller för framtida generationer, eller att ett problem reduceras medan ett annat istället ökar. Med ett systemperspektiv kan även indirekta effekter inkluderas när strategier för minskad miljöpåverkan i sektorn analyseras. De indirekta effekterna omfattar påverkan som sker uppströms och nedströms produktionskedjan, liksom påverkan från konsumenter.</p><p>En metod för att bedöma miljöpåverkan från en sektor har utarbetats och testats på jordbruks- och energisektorn (Artikel I och II). Metoden är en hybridmetod baserad på miljöexpanderad input-output analys (IOA) och livscykelanalys (LCA). IOA-data från Miljöräkenskaperna används som utgångspunkt för inventeringen. Dessa data ger information om både direkt och indirekt miljöpåverkan från sektorn. För att fånga även sådana miljöaspekter som inte omfattas av miljöräkenskaperna används sedan de svenska miljökvalitetsmålen som en checklista, och information om den miljöpåverkan som inte finns med i IOA hämtas från litteraturen. För vidare hantering av den insamlade informationen om utsläpp och resursanvändning används karaktäriserings- och värderingsmetoder från LCA-metodologin. Därigenom kan s.k. hotspots, dvs de viktigaste problemen, identifieras.</p><p>Baserat på denna hybridmetod blev resultatet att i jordbrukssektorn är de viktigaste frågorna biologisk mångfald, växthuseffekt, övergödning, användning av icke-förnybara resurser och troligen även toxicitet genom användningen av bekämpningsmedel. I energisektorn är de viktigaste problemen luftkvalitet, växthuseffekt, användning av icke-förnybara resurser och toxicitet.</p><p>En analys av policies inom sektorerna (Artikel III) visar att både jordbruks- och energisektorn fokuserar delvis på de problem som identifierats som hotspots i sektorsanalyserna, men att vissa av de viktiga problemen inte ägnas så stor uppmärksamhet. I jordbrukssektorn är fokus huvudsakligen riktat mot biologisk mångfald och toxicitet, medan energisektorn framför allt fokuserar på växthuseffekt och användning av icke-förnybara resurser.</p><p>En andra IOA-LCA hybridmetod, Energy Analysis Programme, har använts för att studera hushållens direkta och indirekta energianvändning (Artikel IV och V). Genom en kombination av IOA och processdata kan energiintensiteten (dvs. energi per monetär enhet, MJ/SEK) beräknas av ett stort antal varor och tjänster. När dessa beräkningar kombineras med information om hur ett hushåll spenderar sin inkomst kan hushållens totala energianvändning beräknas. Beräkningarna ger också information om hur inkomsten kan spenderas på mer energisnåla sätt. En ytterligare studie gjordes för att visa på betydelsen av minskat livsmedelssvinn som strategi för minskad miljöpåverkan inom livsmedelssektorn (Artikel VI). Resultaten från studierna med konsumentperspektiv kan användas för att identifiera strategier för hur konsumenterna kan bidra till minskad miljöpåverkan i de båda fallsektorerna. För jordbrukssektorns del kan konsumenterna bidra till minskad miljöpåverkan framför allt genom en minskad konsumtion av animalier. När det gäller energisektorn är minskad energianvändning en viktig strategi, liksom att fortsatt sträva efter att ersätta fossila bränslen och uran med förnybara bränslen.</p> / <p>National sector responsibility legislation places specific obligations on Swedish sector authorities to handle environmental issues within their sector. Because of this responsibility, there is a need to map environmental impacts from sectors and to identify key problems and strategies to reduce impacts in each sector. Agriculture and energy are two sectors causing severe environmental impacts, and these are therefore interesting as case studies.</p><p>Employing a systems perspective when exploring impacts and options for their reduction ensures that problems are not simply shifted in time or space or between problems, but are considered in a holistic manner. Using this perspective, indirect effects such as changes upstream or downstream of the production chain, as well as among consumers, can be considered when seeking strategies to reduce environmental impacts in a sector.</p><p>A method to investigate environmental impacts from a sector was developed and tested in the cases of agriculture and energy (Papers I and II). The method was based on environmentally extended Input-Output Analysis (IOA) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). IOA-data from Swedish Environmental Accounts were used as the starting point for the inventory. Such data provide information on direct and indirect impacts from the sector. To capture those aspects not included in the Environmental Accounts, the Swedish Environmental Quality Objectives were subsequently used as a checklist, and information on the missing aspects was obtained from literature. For further processing of the data, characterisation and weighting methods from LCA methodology were used to identify hotspots, i.e. the most important problems.</p><p>The results showed that biodiversity, greenhouse effect, eutrophication, use of non-renewable resources and toxicity were potential hotspots in the agriculture sector. In the energy sector, the hotspots were air quality, greenhouse effect, use of non-renewable resources and toxicity.</p><p>Analysis of sector policies (Paper III) showed that both sectors are focusing on some of the hotspots identified, but other important problems are not receiving sufficient attention. In the agriculture sector, the focus is principally on biodiversity and toxicity, while the energy sector mainly focuses on issues of climate change and non-renewable resources.</p><p>A second hybrid IOA-LCA method (Energy Analysis Programme, EAP) was employed to study direct and indirect use of energy carriers in households (Papers IV and V). Through a combination of IOA and process data, the energy intensity (energy per monetary unit, e.g. MJ/SEK) of a large number of goods and services was calculated. When combined with information on household expenditure, these data provided information on total household use of fuels and electricity and provided insights into spending patterns that could result in lower energy intensity. A final study investigated the significance of reducing food losses as a strategy to reduce environmental impacts from the food sector (Paper VI). The results from the studies with a consumer perspective were used to identify how consumers can contribute to reducing environmental impacts in the two sectors investigated. For agriculture, consumers can help reduce impacts through reduced consumption of animal products, while for energy, reduced energy use in households is important, as is further substitution of fossil fuels.</p>

Water and wastewater treatment is a critical service provided for protecting human health and the environment. Over the past decade, increasing attention has been placed on energy consumption in water and wastewater systems for the following reasons: (1) Water and energy are two interrelated resources. The nexus between water and energy can intensify the crises of fresh water and fossil fuel shortages; (2) The demand of water/wastewater treatment services is expected to continue to increase with increasing population, economic development and land use change in the foreseeable future; and (3) There is a great potential to mitigate energy use in water and wastewater systems by recovering resources in wastewater treatment systems. As a result, the goal of this dissertation study is to assess the life cycle energy use of both water supply systems and wastewater treatment systems, explore the potential of integrated resource recovery to reduce energy consumption in wastewater systems, and understand the major factors impacting the life cycle energy use of water systems. To achieve the goal, an input-output-based hybrid embodied energy model was developed for calculating life cycle energy in water and wastewater systems in the US. This approach is more comprehensive and less labor intensive than the traditional life cycle assessment. Additionally, this model is flexible in terms of data availability. It can give a rough estimation of embodied energy in water systems with limited data input. Given more site specific data, the model can modify the embodied energy of different energy paths involved in water related sectors. Using the input-output-based hybrid embodied energy model, the life cycle energy of a groundwater supply system (Kalamazoo, Michigan) and a surface water supply system (Tampa, Florida) was compared. The two systems evaluated have comparable total energy embodiments based on unit water production. However, the onsite energy use of the groundwater supply system is approximately 27% greater than the surface water supply system. This was primarily due to more extensive pumping requirements. On the other hand, the groundwater system uses approximately 31% less indirect energy than the surface water system, mainly because of fewer chemicals used for treatment. The results from this and other studies were also compiled to provide a relative comparison of embodied energy for major water supply options. The comparison shows that desalination is the most energy intensive option among all the water sources. The embodied energy and benefits of reclaimed water depend on local situations and additional treatment needed to ensure treated wastewater suitable for the desired application. A review was conducted on the current resource recovery technologies in wastewater treatment systems. It reveals that there are very limited life cycle studies on the resource recovery technologies applied in the municipal wastewater treatment systems and their integrations. Hence, a life cycle study was carried out to investigate the carbon neutrality in a state-of-art wastewater treatment plant in Tampa, FL. Three resource recovery methods were specifically investigated: onsite energy generation through combined heat and power systems, nutrient recycling through biosolids land application, and water reuse for residential irrigation. The embodied energy and the associated carbon footprint were estimated using the input-output-based hybrid embodied energy model and carbon emission factors. It was shown that the integrated resource (energy, nutrient and water) recovery has the potential to offset all the direct operational energy; however, it is not able to offset the total embodied energy of the treatment plant to achieve carbon neutrality. Among the three resource recovery methods, water reuse has the highest potential of offsetting carbon footprint, while nutrient recycling has the lowest. A final application of the model was to study on the correlation between embodied energy in regional water supply systems and demographic and environmental characteristics. It shows that energy embodied in water supply systems in a region is related to and can be estimated by population, land use patterns, especially percentage of urban land and water source, and water sources. This model provides an alternative way to quickly estimate embodied energy of water supply in a region. The estimated embodied energy of water supply can further be used as a supporting tool for decision making and planning.

This thesis presents a detailed study of life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions intensity during the uranium mining-milling phase of the nuclear fuel cycle for three paired uranium mine-mill operations in northern Saskatchewan (SK). The study period runs from 2006 – 2013 for two of the three pairs, and from 1995-2010 for the third. The life cycle analysis has been conducted based on the ISO 14040:2006 standard using a Process Chain Analysis methodology. This study differs from previous studies of GHG emissions intensity during the uranium mining-milling phase of the nuclear fuel cycle in two key respects. First, it has a very large system boundary which includes the uranium exploration and mine-mill decommissioning phases. Second, it utilizes a life cycle inventory database to include many processes which would normally fall outside of the system boundary due to their small individual contributions. These differences contribute to a more accurate result. The production-weighted average life cycle GHG emissions intensity is estimated as 45 kg CO2e/kg U3O8 at an average ore grade of 9.12% U3O8 based on relative U3O8 production volumes at Mine-Mill A, B, and C from 2006 to 2010. The 95% confidence interval for the production-weighted average result ranges from 42 to 49 kg CO2e/kg U3O8, indicating that overall uncertainty in the result is low. Life cycle GHG emission intensity for the three uranium mine-mill pairs are 84, 66, and 35 kg CO2e/kg U3O8 at average ore grades of 0.71%, 1.54%, and 11.5% U3O8 respectively. Nearly 90% of life cycle GHG emissions are associated with operation of the uranium mine-mills, primarily from energy consumption during operation (69% of total) transport of materials and personnel (7.0%), and use of reagents (5.6%). Remaining processes each individually account for less than 5% of the total. In calculating emissions from electricity consumption, the base-case emission intensities reported above use a province-wide electricity emission factor because the utility does not differentiate its emissions by region. However, the facilities included in this study are all located in Northern Saskatchewan, which is powered exclusively by hydropower. Application of a regional emission factor reduces the production-weighted average life cycle GHG emission intensity to 26 kg CO2e/kg U3O8 with a 95% confidence interval of 25 to 29 kg CO2e/kg U3O8. This represents a 42% reduction in life cycle GHG emission intensity from the base case. Due to the high uranium ore grades found in SK uranium deposits, life cycle GHG emissions intensity for uranium from SK is among the lowest in the world. Further, the life cycle GHG emission intensity estimate from uranium mining-milling in SK is a small (approximately 10%) contributor to the life cycle GHG emissions intensity from the nuclear fuel cycle for light water reactors overall, amounting to approximately 1.2 g CO2e/kWh electricity (0.6 g CO2e/kWh electricity calculated using the regional hydroelectric power source).

Environmental regulations have historically been focused on individual emission points, facilities, or industrial sectors. However, recent and emerging regulations for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions such as those contained in the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007 have introduced the concept of product life cycle limits on the emissions of transportation fuels. Thus, a complete life cycle assessment (LCA) of the transportation fuel must be completed where all emissions from field to the vehicle’s fuel tank and from tank to the vehicle’s exhaust must be assessed. However, although there have been extensive analysis of the GHG emissions associated with transportation fuels, there are substantial uncertainties associated with these estimates that can be attributed to poor data quality, inconsistent methodological choices, and model uncertainties, among others. This thesis evaluates the uncertainties present in LCA through the case study of fuel production using Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) synthesis of fuels derived from coal and biomass. Specifically, GHG emission estimates for F-T synthesis process scenarios are presented and the uncertainties in the estimates are discussed. Overall uncertainties in GHG emissions due to changes in the details of the process configurations in the F-T process can be up to 11%. This finding suggests that the details of fuel refining conditions will need to be specified in determining whether fuels meet GHG emission requirements, complicating the implementation of life cycle GHG regulations. / text

No description available.

Conventional fossil fuels are widely used, however there are growing concerns about the security of their supply, volatility in their prices and the environmental impacts of their extraction and use. The objective of this research is to investigate the potential for replacing conventional fuels in various applications, focusing on the Alberta oil sands industry. Such investigations require systems-level approaches able to handle multiple criteria, uncertainty, and the views of multiple stakeholders. To address this need, the following are developed: life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing models of polygeneration systems; a life cycle-based framework for multi-sectoral resource use decisions; and a method combining LCA and real options analyses to yield environmental and financial insights into projects. These tools are applied to options for utilizing oil sands outputs, both the petroleum resource (bitumen) and by-products of its processing (e.g., asphaltenes, coke), within the oil sands industry and across other sectors. For oil sands on-site use, multiple fuels are assessed for the polygeneration of electricity, steam and hydrogen, in terms of life cycle environmental and financial impacts; asphaltenes gasification with carbon capture and storage (CCS) is the most promising option, able to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to 25% of those of current natural gas-based systems. Coke management options are assessed with the life cycle-based framework; the most promising options are identified as: Electricity generation in China through integrated gasification combined cycle; and, hydrogen production in Alberta, either for sale or use by the oil sands industry. Without CCS, these options have amortized project values ranging from $21 to $160/t coke. The application of the combined LCA and real options analyses method finds that uncertainty in natural gas and potential carbon prices over time significantly impacts decisions on coke management; the formulated decision tree identifies increases of 29% and 11% in the financial and GHG emissions performance, respectively, of the overall coke management project compared to pursuing the decision identified by the life cycle-based framework. While promising options for replacing conventional fossil fuels are identified through systems-level analyses, there are trade-offs to be made among the financial, risk and environmental criteria.

Conventional fossil fuels are widely used, however there are growing concerns about the security of their supply, volatility in their prices and the environmental impacts of their extraction and use. The objective of this research is to investigate the potential for replacing conventional fuels in various applications, focusing on the Alberta oil sands industry. Such investigations require systems-level approaches able to handle multiple criteria, uncertainty, and the views of multiple stakeholders. To address this need, the following are developed: life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing models of polygeneration systems; a life cycle-based framework for multi-sectoral resource use decisions; and a method combining LCA and real options analyses to yield environmental and financial insights into projects. These tools are applied to options for utilizing oil sands outputs, both the petroleum resource (bitumen) and by-products of its processing (e.g., asphaltenes, coke), within the oil sands industry and across other sectors. For oil sands on-site use, multiple fuels are assessed for the polygeneration of electricity, steam and hydrogen, in terms of life cycle environmental and financial impacts; asphaltenes gasification with carbon capture and storage (CCS) is the most promising option, able to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to 25% of those of current natural gas-based systems. Coke management options are assessed with the life cycle-based framework; the most promising options are identified as: Electricity generation in China through integrated gasification combined cycle; and, hydrogen production in Alberta, either for sale or use by the oil sands industry. Without CCS, these options have amortized project values ranging from $21 to $160/t coke. The application of the combined LCA and real options analyses method finds that uncertainty in natural gas and potential carbon prices over time significantly impacts decisions on coke management; the formulated decision tree identifies increases of 29% and 11% in the financial and GHG emissions performance, respectively, of the overall coke management project compared to pursuing the decision identified by the life cycle-based framework. While promising options for replacing conventional fossil fuels are identified through systems-level analyses, there are trade-offs to be made among the financial, risk and environmental criteria.

Increasing the amount of food produced while simultaneously reducing the environmental impacts of agriculture is one of the most pressing challenges facing humanity. A promising approach through which this could be achieved is ‘sustainable intensification’. This thesis contributes to the exploration of sustainable intensification using two complementary modes of investigation. First through the development of a conceptual framework that analyzes agricultural systems through the lens of ecosystem services and the trade-offs associated with using external inputs (e.g. fertilizer, pesticides, fossil fuels) as substitutes for them. Then by quantifying the life cycle environmental impacts of a novel aquaculture technology developed as a means for minimizing local ecological impacts. These modes of investigation are linked by using the conceptual framework to analyze trade-offs associated with waste capture in the aquaculture system. This research provides a potentially valuable method for conceptualizing agricultural systems and contributes to the knowledge of the environmental trade-offs associated with aquaculture.

Water is an irreplaceable resource, covering around two thirds of Earth´s surface, although only one percent is available for use. Except from households, other human activities such as agriculture and industries use water. Water use and pollution can make water unavailable to some users and places already exposed for water scarcity are especially vulnerable for such changes. Increased water use and factors such as climate change make water scarcity to a global concern and to protect the environment and humans it will be necessary to manage this problem. The concept of water footprint was introduced in 2002 as a tool to assess impact from freshwater use. Since then, many methods concerning water use and degradation have been developed and today there are several studies made on water footprint. Still, the majority of these studies only include water use. The aim of this study was to evaluate three different methods due to their ability to calculate water footprint for the production of trucks, with the qualification that the methods should consider both water use and emissions. Three methods were applied on two Volvo factories in Sweden, located in Umeå and Gothenburg. Investigations of water flows in background processes were made as a life cycle assessment in Gabi software. The water flows were thereafter assessed with the H2Oe, the Water Footprint Network and the Ecological scarcity method. The results showed that for the factory in Umeå the water footprint values were 2.62 Mm3 H2Oe, 43.08 Mm3 and 354.7 MEP per 30,000 cabins. The variation in units and values indicates that it is complicated to compare water footprints for products calculated with different methods. The study also showed that the H2Oe and the Ecological scarcity method account for the water scarcity situation. A review of the concordance with the new ISO standard for water footprint was made but none of the methods satisfies all criteria for elementary flows. Comparison between processes at the factories showed that a flocculation chemical gives a larger water footprint for the H2Oe and the Ecological scarcity method, while the water footprint for the WFN method and carbon footprint is larger for electricity. This indicates that environmental impact is considered different depending on method and that a process favorable regarding to climate change not necessarily is beneficial for environmental impact in the perspective of water use. / Vatten är en ovärderlig resurs som täcker cirka två tredjedelar av jordens yta men där endast en procent är tillgänglig för användning. Människan använder vatten till olika ändamål, förutom i hushåll används vatten bland annat inom jordbruk och industrier. Vattenanvändning och utsläpp av föroreningar kan göra vatten otillgängligt, vilket kan vara extra känsligt i de områden där människor redan lider av vattenbrist. Den ökade vattenanvändningen tillsammans med exempelvis klimatförändringar bidrar till att göra vattenbrist till en global angelägenhet och det kommer att krävas åtgärder för att skydda människor och miljö. År 2002 introducerades begreppet vattenfotavtryck som ett verktyg för att bedöma miljöpåverkan från vattenanvändning. Sedan dess har begreppet utvecklats till att inkludera många olika beräkningsmetoder men många av de befintliga studierna har uteslutit föroreningar och bara fokuserat på vattenkonsumtion. Syftet med denna rapport var att utvärdera tre olika metoder med avseende på deras förmåga att beräkna vattenfotavtryck vid produktion av lastbilar, med villkoret att metoderna ska inkludera både vattenkonsumtion och föroreningar. I studien användes tre metoder för att beräkna vattenfotavtrycket för två Volvo fabriker placerade i Umeå och Göteborg. En livscykelanalys utfördes i livscykelanalysverktyget Gabi, för att kartlägga vattenflöden från bakgrundsprocesser. Därefter värderades vattenflödena med metoderna; H2Oe, WFN och Ecological scarcity. Resultatet för fabriken i Umeå gav för respektive metod ett vattenfotavtryck motsvarande 2,62 Mm3 H2Oe, 43,08 Mm3 respektive 354,7 MEP per 30 000 lastbilshytter. Variationen i enheter och storlek tyder på att det kan vara svårt att jämföra vattenfotavtryck för produkter som beräknats med olika metoder. Studien visade att H2Oe och Ecological scarcity tar hänsyn till vattentillgängligheten i området. En granskning av metodernas överensstämmelse med den nya ISO standarden för vattenfotavtryck gjordes men ingen av metoderna i studien uppfyllde alla kriterier. Av de processer som ingår i fabrikerna visade det sig att vattenfotavtrycket för H2Oe och Ecological scarcity metoden var störst för en fällningskemikalie. För den tredje metoden och koldioxid var avtrycket störst för elektriciteten. Detta tyder på att olika metoder värderar miljöpåverkan olika samt att de processer som anses bättre ur miljösynpunkt för klimatförändringar inte nödvändigtvis behöver vara bäst vid vattenanvändning.