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Although many studies have suggested positive effects for speaking or output practice on L2 grammar development, the question of how speaking affects L2 grammar remains. This study specifically examines how output affects the explicit and implicit knowledge of Spanish indirect object pronouns (IOPs). It also investigates levels of L2 grammar development for participants with low, mid and high levels of background knowledge of Spanish subject-verb agreement. Eight participants were given explicit grammar instruction on the target structure followed by six paired output-focus activities. These included two information-gap tasks, a matching task, a partner interview, original sentence creation, and a dictogloss task. In each task participants were required to orally produce IOPs whether they were reading a prepared IOP or producing one originally based on a prompt. In order to capture qualitative data on the effectiveness of output, all paired interaction was transcribed and coded for language related episodes (LREs). In this study three types of LREs were identified: self-correction, other-correction and metatalk. Learners were also tested on IOPs immediately before instruction, immediately following and three weeks afterward. Quantitative data consisted of these results of pre, post, and delayed posttests, the number of IOPs produced during all instructional activities, and the percentage of correct IOPs produced compared to those omitted or produced incorrectly. Development of explicit knowledge was assessed by an untimed written picture description task, whereas implicit knowledge was assessed on the tests by a timed grammaticality judgment task. The results of the picture description task showed more consistent gains in development of explicit knowledge. The results of the grammaticality judgment task were more irregular and suggested less consistent gains in development of implicit knowledge. Together, quantitative and qualitative results suggest that explicit instruction followed by output practice was most effective for learners in this study with greater knowledge of subject-verb agreement. A comparison of qualitative results and test scores revealed that learners who showed more focus on the lexicon during instructional tasks and did not produce IOPs as often, and also had lower scores on both tests. Stronger learning outcomes were observed for learners who produced more IOPs, had a higher percentage of correct IOPs and were involved in LREs. / Spanish

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This dissertation explores various syntactic dependencies from relative phrases in Hindi. I show that besides Scrambling, Topicalisation and Left Dislocation, a fourth A$\sp\prime$ dependency must be recognised: Topic Dislocation. This relation is limited to referential Noun Phrases which are related to null pronominals. Since it is a non-movement relation, it is not subject to Subjacency. As a result, it may occur in construction with complex Noun Phrases. Further, I explore extraction phenomena from the correlative construction and claim that the relative phrase is not adjoined to the main clause (cf. Hale 1976, Srivastav 1991a,b); it is asymmetrically co-ordinate to it. Following Williams (in press) I claim that this is a 'double headed' construction. Using this characterisation plus the fact that left conjuncts in Hindi are transparent to extraction, I am able to account for the transparency of both clauses of the correlative construction. Further, I claim that the 'that' clause in Hindi is also asymmetrically co-ordinate to the main clause. It is not subordinate to it at all. I show that typical c-command effects do not obtain between the matrix and embedded clause. Finally I posit the existence of 'afterthought restrictors.' These are relative phrases to the right which have been assumed to be right adjoined. I assume a bar on all right adjunction, and instead claim that these phrases are linked at the Discourse level to the main clause. This proposal accounts for the fact that such phrases are completely opaque to any external syntactic dependency, e.g. Topicalisation, Topic Dislocation and Left Dislocation. Since these phrases are not syntactically connected to the main clause, elements in them may not be c-commanded by the constituents in the main clause. Without c-command, none of the above mentioned relations is licensed. My assumption that right adjunction is barred in Hindi is supported by and supports Kayne 1993, where it is proposed that right adjunction is universally disallowed.