It is well established that the 17-estradiol is involved in the development and homeostasis of reproductive and extra-reproductive tissues, particularly the mammary gland. Estradiol classically binds to Estrogen Receptor (ERα), which is a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily. ER mediates nuclear (transcription) and plasma membrane (signaling) ERα function. Interestingly, the membrane initiated steroid signaling (MISS) required a post translational modification of the receptor: palmitoylation of the human Cys-447 or the murine Cys-451 counterpart. The main objectives of my PhD thesis were to decipher the physiological role of membrane ERα in mammary gland development and to understand how the membrane ER signaling impact breast cancer. To do so, we used the transgenic mouse model C451A-ER in which the single point mutation (C451A) was introduced to abolish palmitoylation of ER (membrane addressing signal). We demonstrate that the point mutation of the palmitoylation site of ER alters the paracrine signaling of luminal epithelial cells and by consequence the repopulation properties of the mammary stem cells. We also studied the involvement of the membrane effects of the Estrogen Receptor ERα in the 17β-estradiol response dose of the mammary gland. Finally, by breeding the C451A-ER mice with the widely used transgenic mice model of tumorigenesis (PyMT), we provide the first evidence that the membrane ERα influences tumorigenesis. These findings pave the way on an unexpected role of non-genomic function of ERα in the mammary gland physiology and physiopathology. / It is well established that the 17-estradiol is involved in the development and homeostasis of reproductive and extra-reproductive tissues, particularly the mammary gland. Estradiol classically binds to Estrogen Receptor (ERα), which is a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily. ER mediates nuclear (transcription) and plasma membrane (signaling) ERα function. Interestingly, the membrane initiated steroid signaling (MISS) required a post translational modification of the receptor: palmitoylation of the human Cys-447 or the murine Cys-451 counterpart. The main objectives of my PhD thesis were to decipher the physiological role of membrane ERα in mammary gland development and to understand how the membrane ER signaling impact breast cancer. To do so, we used the transgenic mouse model C451A-ER in which the single point mutation (C451A) was introduced to abolish palmitoylation of ER (membrane addressing signal). We demonstrate that the point mutation of the palmitoylation site of ER alters the paracrine signaling of luminal epithelial cells and by consequence the repopulation properties of the mammary stem cells. We also studied the involvement of the membrane effects of the Estrogen Receptor ERα in the 17β-estradiol response dose of the mammary gland. Finally, by breeding the C451A-ER mice with the widely used transgenic mice model of tumorigenesis (PyMT), we provide the first evidence that the membrane ERα influences tumorigenesis. These findings pave the way on an unexpected role of non-genomic function of ERα in the mammary gland physiology and physiopathology.

Sex steroids are inevitable in women. However, long-term exposure to sex steroids increases the risk of breast cancer. A complete understanding of sex steroid control of the breast and how it relates to breast cancer risk is still lacking. Angiogenesis and proteolytic enzyme activity are crucial for the process by which tumors evolve into a vascularized, invasive phenotype. Matrix metalloproteinases are potent matrixdegrading enzymes that affect several steps in tumor progression including angiogenesis. In the female reproductive organs, sex steroids regulate angiogenesis and MMP activity, yet little is known how sex steroids affect these crucial events in normal and malignant breast tissue. This thesis elucidates a link between sex steroids, MMP activity, and angiogenesis. It is shown that estradiol down-regulates while tamoxifen up-regulates the protein expression and activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in human breast cancer cells in vitro and in human breast cancer xenografts in vivo. The results further suggest that a biological consequence of this regulation may be modulation of tumor angiogenesis. The net effect of adding tamoxifen to estradiol treatment was an increase in extracellular levels of the endogenous angiogenesis inhibitor endostatin and decreased levels of the tumor promoter TGF-β1 compared to estradiol treatment only. This was accompanied by reduced vasculature and decreased tumor growth. Similarly, a regulatory effect of estradiol and tamoxifen on endostatin generation was observed in normal human breast tissue by whole-tissue culture and microdialysis in human breast tissue in situ. In conclusion, the results presented in this thesis suggest previously unknown mechanisms of action of estradiol and tamoxifen in breast cancer and in normal human breast tissue, and novel means by which estradiol may tip the scale to favor angiogenesis. This knowledge may be important for the understanding of sex steroid dependent breast carcinogenesis and in the future development of tissue-specific preventive as well as therapeutic strategies against breast cancer.

Mother's milk provides multiple benefits to the offspring. However, xenobiotics transferred into breast milk may pose a risk to the nursing infant. The breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) actively transports xenobiotics into breast milk. BCRP also transports nutrients, like riboflavin, and together with recently identified riboflavin transporters (RFT), may provide a mechanism for riboflavin secretion into breast milk. Expression of RFT in the mammary gland remained unknown. Our objective was to characterize Bcrp and Rft mRNA expression in the mammary gland of FVB/N mice, and investigate a strategy to decrease excretion of BCRP-transported xenobiotics into the milk using riboflavin intervention. Rft and Bcrp mRNA were upregulated in the mammary gland of lactating mice. An intravenous riboflavin administration significantly reduced the levels of BCRP-transported cimetidine in milk. This study demonstrates the use of riboflavin to exploit the function of mammary BCRP in order to reduce xenobiotic secretion into breast milk.

Mother's milk provides multiple benefits to the offspring. However, xenobiotics transferred into breast milk may pose a risk to the nursing infant. The breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) actively transports xenobiotics into breast milk. BCRP also transports nutrients, like riboflavin, and together with recently identified riboflavin transporters (RFT), may provide a mechanism for riboflavin secretion into breast milk. Expression of RFT in the mammary gland remained unknown. Our objective was to characterize Bcrp and Rft mRNA expression in the mammary gland of FVB/N mice, and investigate a strategy to decrease excretion of BCRP-transported xenobiotics into the milk using riboflavin intervention. Rft and Bcrp mRNA were upregulated in the mammary gland of lactating mice. An intravenous riboflavin administration significantly reduced the levels of BCRP-transported cimetidine in milk. This study demonstrates the use of riboflavin to exploit the function of mammary BCRP in order to reduce xenobiotic secretion into breast milk.

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) alpha and beta are central regulators of key developmental pathways, including Wnt, Hedgehog and Notch, which control stem cell activities and cellular differentiation. Both forms of GSK-3 are also regulated by receptor tyrosine kinases via the PI3K/Akt growth-promoting pathway and are involved in feedback mechanisms that maintain signaling homeostasis. These signaling systems have critical functions in mammary gland development and aberrations in them have been implicated in breast cancer. However, the role of GSK-3 in breast oncogenesis is unclear. Here, I provide evidence that maintenance of appropriate GSK-3 activity is necessary for normal acinar morphogenesis of mammary cells in the ductal/alveolar epithelium. Inadequate GSK-3 levels result in enlarged structures that often lack hollow lumens and resemble early premalignant breast cancer lesions. A potential contribution for PI3K signaling to this phenotype was identified as a PI3K inhibitor partially reversed the observed morphological defects. Mammary epithelial cell (MEC) identity also requires modulation of signals through the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway. GSK-3-depleted mammary glands not only transdifferentiate into squamous epithelium but also develop highly proliferative adenosquamous carcinomas characterized by activated beta-catenin. Furthermore, beta-catenin appears to be required for both cell fate changes and tumorigenesis in the absence of GSK-3 function. Mammary tissues engineered to enable conditional deletion of beta-catenin in a GSK-3-null background also assumed an epidermoid cell fate with ensuing tumor formation albeit with a significantly longer latency and different histopathology. The metaplastic nature of tumors observed is similar to a rare yet aggressive form of human breast disease, metaplastic breast carcinomas (MBCs). Mammospheres (MS) generated from GSK-3 depleted MECs exhibited a less compact morphology compared to those with activated beta-catenin, which also exhibited an expansion of the CD24:CD49f double positive progenitor population and enhanced self-renewal. No MS were formed by MECs lacking GSK-3 and beta-catenin. ErbB2/Neu-mediated mammary tumor progression has been associated with Wnt/beta-catenin pathway activation. Loss of beta-catenin delayed tumor onset in a constitutively active ErbB2 mouse model but did not alter either the luminal characteristics of the ensuing tumors nor their metastatic potential. Collectively these studies indicate GSK-3 plays important roles in mammary gland function thereby suppressing mammary tumor formation.

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) alpha and beta are central regulators of key developmental pathways, including Wnt, Hedgehog and Notch, which control stem cell activities and cellular differentiation. Both forms of GSK-3 are also regulated by receptor tyrosine kinases via the PI3K/Akt growth-promoting pathway and are involved in feedback mechanisms that maintain signaling homeostasis. These signaling systems have critical functions in mammary gland development and aberrations in them have been implicated in breast cancer. However, the role of GSK-3 in breast oncogenesis is unclear. Here, I provide evidence that maintenance of appropriate GSK-3 activity is necessary for normal acinar morphogenesis of mammary cells in the ductal/alveolar epithelium. Inadequate GSK-3 levels result in enlarged structures that often lack hollow lumens and resemble early premalignant breast cancer lesions. A potential contribution for PI3K signaling to this phenotype was identified as a PI3K inhibitor partially reversed the observed morphological defects. Mammary epithelial cell (MEC) identity also requires modulation of signals through the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway. GSK-3-depleted mammary glands not only transdifferentiate into squamous epithelium but also develop highly proliferative adenosquamous carcinomas characterized by activated beta-catenin. Furthermore, beta-catenin appears to be required for both cell fate changes and tumorigenesis in the absence of GSK-3 function. Mammary tissues engineered to enable conditional deletion of beta-catenin in a GSK-3-null background also assumed an epidermoid cell fate with ensuing tumor formation albeit with a significantly longer latency and different histopathology. The metaplastic nature of tumors observed is similar to a rare yet aggressive form of human breast disease, metaplastic breast carcinomas (MBCs). Mammospheres (MS) generated from GSK-3 depleted MECs exhibited a less compact morphology compared to those with activated beta-catenin, which also exhibited an expansion of the CD24:CD49f double positive progenitor population and enhanced self-renewal. No MS were formed by MECs lacking GSK-3 and beta-catenin. ErbB2/Neu-mediated mammary tumor progression has been associated with Wnt/beta-catenin pathway activation. Loss of beta-catenin delayed tumor onset in a constitutively active ErbB2 mouse model but did not alter either the luminal characteristics of the ensuing tumors nor their metastatic potential. Collectively these studies indicate GSK-3 plays important roles in mammary gland function thereby suppressing mammary tumor formation.

The mammary gland is a dynamic organ that undergoes the majority of its development in the postnatal period in four stages; mature virgin, pregnancy, lactation, and involution. Every stage relies on tightly regulated cellular proliferation, programmed cell death, and tissue remodeling mechanisms. Misregulation of autophagy, an intracellular catabolic process to maintain energy stores, has long been associated with mammary tumorigenesis and other pathologies. We hypothesize that appropriate regulation and execution of autophagy are necessary for proper development of the mammary ductal tree and maintenance of the secretory epithelia during late pregnancy and lactation. To test this hypothesis we examined the role of two genes during development of the mammary gland. Beclin1 (Becn1) is an essential autophagy gene. Since the Becn1 knockout model is embryonic lethal, we have generated a Becn1 conditional knockout (cKO). We used two discrete mammary gland-specific Cre transgenic lines to interrogate the role of BECN1 during development. We report that MMTV-CreD; Becn1fl/fl mice have a hyper-branching phenotype and WAP-Cre; Becn1fl/- mice are unable to sustain a lactation phase. Becn1 mutants exhibit abnormal glandular morphology during pregnancy and after parturition. Moreover, when autophagy is chemically inhibited in vitro, mammary epithelial cells have an increased mean number of lipid droplets per cell. MTOR inhibits autophagy upstream of BECN1; we looked higher in the regulatory pathway for regulatory candidates. It has been well characterized that Tuberous sclerosis complex 1 (TSC1), in a heterodimer with its primary binding partner TSC2, inhibits MTOR signaling via inhibition of RHEB. Using the Tsc1 floxed model we generated a mammary gland specific Tsc1 cKO and found that these mice phenocopy the Becn1 cKO mice, including a gross lactation failure. Tsc1 cKO glands have altered morphology, retained lipid droplets in secretory epithelia, and an overall increase in MTOR signaling. We show that TSC1 and BECN1 are interacting partners, and that the interaction is nutrient responsive. These results suggest that Becn1 and Tsc1 are necessary for proper mammary gland development and differentiation. Furthermore, we have demonstrated a novel murine protein-protein interaction and an important link between regulation of MTOR pathway and regulation of autophagy in a developmental context.

The thesis explores an issue of mastitis in dairy cows, and factors that influence the health of a mammary gland. In span of 2012-2013, 629 quarter samples of milk were collected, the somatic cells count (SCC) was determined and the results related to the condition of teats base, and also to an order and phase of lactation. The results were compared to the pool samples collected in 2008-2013 (SCC, TBC) and the number and development of clinical mastitis was followed (2012-2013). The condition of teats base was estimated as an important factor contributing to the health of a mammary gland. The lowest SCC was identified in the first phase of lactation, and, contrary to that, the highest SCC was identified in the third phase of lactation (active involution). The order of lactation proved to be an important factor influencing SCC in milk. Dairy cows staying in pasture were shown to have less SCC in milk; it can therefore be concluded that grazing has a positive impact on SCC in milk. In the examined period, very low number of clinical mastitis was determined

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Mammary gland tumors are common in dogs and are the most common type of neoplasms of female dogs. The main purposes of this study were to establish the prevalence of the mammary gland tumors, as well as of its different histologic types (neoplastic and non-neoplastic), diagnosed in the Laboratório de Patologia Veterinária of the Universidade Federal de Santa Maria. There were 1,304 biopsy reports of mammary gland tumors between 1990-2008 and 132 necropsy reports of dogs with mammary tumors between 2000-2008. Data about breed, gender, and age of dogs, tumor localization, morphologic diagnosis, and metastasis occurrence were analyzed. In the biopsy cases, 1,495 tumors were diagnosed, considering the presence of more than one type of tumor in some of the dogs. From those, 1,465 were neoplastic and 30 were non-neoplastic. Within the neoplasms, 390 (26.6%) were benign and 1,075 (73.3%) were malignant. The bening/malignant ratio was 1:2.75. Between the years 2000-2008, 1,125 necropsies of dogs were performed, 132 (11.64%) of which had mammary gland tumors. There were 152 morphologic diagnoses, being 150 of neoplastic and 2 of non-neoplastic lesions. Simple carcinoma was the most prevalent histologic type, both among biopsy and necropsy cases. On necropsy cases, metastases to lymph nodes and distant organs were seen in 39 (29.5%) and 64 (53,3%) cases, respectively. / Tumores mamários são comuns em cães, sendo o tipo mais comum de neoplasma em cadelas. Esta dissertação tem como objetivos principais estabelecer a prevalência dos tumores mamários, bem como dos diferentes tipos histológicos (neoplásicos e não-neoplásicos), diagnosticados em cães no Laboratório de Patologia Veterinária da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria. Foram analisados 1.304 protocolos de exames histopatológicos recebidos entre 1990-2008 e 132 protocolos de necropsias realizadas entre 2000-2008. Deles foram computados raça, sexo e idade dos cães, localização do tumor na cadeia mamária, diagnóstico morfológico e ocorrência de metástases. Nos protocolos de exame histopatológico, foram diagnosticados 1.495 tumores, considerando que alguns cães tinham mais de um tipo de tumor, sendo 1.465 neoplásicos e 30 não-neoplásicos. Dos neoplásicos, 390 (26,6%) eram benignos e 1.075 (73,3%) eram malignos, estabelecendo-se uma relação benigno:maligno de 1:2,75. Das 1.125 necropsias de cães realizadas entre 2000-2008, 132 (11,64%) protocolos tinham descrições de tumor de mama, perfazendo 152 diagnósticos morfológicos, dos quais 150 eram neoplásicos e dois não-neoplásicos. Carcinoma simples foi o tipo histológico mais prevalente tanto em biópsias como em necropsias. Nas necropsias, foram observadas metástases para linfonodos em 39 casos (29,5%) e para órgãos distantes em 64 casos (53,3%).

O vírus da leucose enzoótica bovina (VLEB) pode interferir na proporção e na funcionalidade dos linfócitos B e das demais células sanguíneas. Acreditando-se que essas alterações pudessem interferir nos mecanismos de defesa da glândula mamária, o presente estudo avaliou funcionalmente os fagócitos sanguíneos e lácteos de vacas naturalmente infectadas pelo VLEB, por meio da expressão de diferentes receptores de superfície celular de fagócitos e linfócitos; da morte celular dos fagócitos e do linfócito B; pelo potencial de fagocitose e produção intracelular de peróxido de hidrogênio pelas células CD14+ e CH138+. Foram selecionadas nove vacas negativas para a LEB (grupo negativo), dez positivas sem linfocitose (grupo AL) e seis positivas com linfocitose persistente (grupo LP). Independente do perfil hematológico das vacas positivas para a LEB, nas amostras de sangue foram observadas menor expressão de células mononucleares CD14+, de linfócitos T (CD3+) e de linfócitos B CD21+ CD11b+ e maior expressão de linfócitos B (CD21+). As vacas do grupo LP apresentaram menores quantidades de linfócitos T auxiliares (CD3+ CD4+) e de linfócitos B CD21+ CD5- CD11b- e maiores quantidades de linfócitos B CD21+ CD5+ CD11b+. Menores quantidades de linfócitos B CD21+ CD5+ foram observados nas vacas do grupo AL do que nas vacas do grupo negativo. As vacas do grupo LP apresentaram menores índices de fagocitose por Escherichia coli pelas células mononucleares CD14+, menor produção de peróxido de hidrogênio e menores índices de fagocitose por Staphylococcus aureus pelas células polimorfonucleares CH138+. As vacas do grupo LP apresentaram menores índices de necrose, de apoptose e/ou necrose e maior viabilidade das células mononucleares CD14+, das células polimorfonucleares CH138+ e dos linfócitos B (CD21+). Apenas os linfócitos B (CD21+) das vacas do grupo LP apresentaram menores índices de morte por apoptose, e as células mononucleares CD14+ das vacas do grupo AL manifestaram maiores índices de apoptose e/ou necrose do que as vacas negativas. Independente do perfil hematológico das vacas, nas amostras de leite foram observadas maiores quantidades de macrófagos e maiores expressões de linfócitos T (CD3+) e de linfócitos B (CD21+). As vacas do grupo AL apresentaram maior quantidade de linfócitos B (CD21+) do que as vacas negativas. As vacas do grupo LP apresentaram menores quantidades de linfócitos T citotóxicos (CD3+ CD8+), de linfócitos B CD21+ CD11b+ e de linfócitos B CD21+ CD5+ CD11b+ e maior quantidade de linfócitos B CD21+ CD5- CD11b-. As vacas do grupo AL apresentaram menores índices de fagocitose por Escherichia coli pelos macrófagos CD14+ e pelos leucócitos CH138+ e as vacas do grupo LP apresentaram maior produção de peróxido de hidrogênio intracelular. As vacas positivas para LEB apresentaram maiores índices de morte por necrose dos macrófagos CD14+ e dos linfócitos B (CD21+) e menores índices de morte por apoptose dos macrófagos CD14+, dos leucócitos CH138+ e dos linfócitos B (CD21+). Estas vacas também apresentaram maior viabilidade dos macrófagos CD14+ e dos leucócitos CH138+. As vacas do grupo LP apresentaram maiores índices de apoptose e/ou necrose dos macrófagos CD14+, de necrose de leucócitos CH138+ e de viabilidade de linfócitos B (CD21+). Resultados permitem concluir que a o VLEB altera a resposta imune da glândula mamária. / The enzootic bovine leukemia virus (BLV) can influence the amount of lymphocytes B and other blood cells and their functions. Believing that these changes could interfere in the defense mechanisms of the mammary gland, this study evaluated blood and milk phagocytes functions from cows naturally infected VLEB through the expression of different cell surface receptors of phagocytes and lymphocytes; from death cell of phagocytes and B lymphocytes; the phagocytosis and intracellular production of hydrogen peroxide by CD14+ and CH138+ cells. We chose nine cows negative for the LEB (negative group), ten positive without lymphocytosis (LA group) and six positive with persistent lymphocytosis (LP group). In blood samples of positive cows for BLV, it was observed smaller expression of CD14+ mononuclear, T lymphocytes (CD3+) and CD21+ CD11b+ B lymphocytes, along with increased expression of B lymphocytes (CD21+). Cows of the LP group had lower amounts of T helper lymphocytes (CD3+ CD4+) and CD21+ CD5- CD11b- B lymphocytes and higher amounts of CD21+ CD5+ CD11b+ B lymphocytes. In cows of AL group it was observed lower amounts of CD21+ CD5+ B lymphocytes than in cows of negative group. Cows of LP group had lower rates of Escherichia coli phagocytosis by CD14+ mononuclear cells, lower intracellular production of hydrogen peroxide and lower rates of phagocytosis of Staphylococcus aureus by CH138+ polymorphonuclear cells. Cows of LP group showed less necrosis, apoptosis and/or necrosis and increased viability of CD14+ mononuclear cells, CH138+ polymorphonuclear cells and B lymphocytes (CD21+). Only the B-lymphocytes (CD21+) of the cows in the LP group showed less apoptosis, and CD14 + mononuclear cells from cows in the AL group showed higher rates of apoptosis and/or necrosis than the ones from negative cows. In the milk sample, the positive cows showed higher amounts of macrophages and increased expression of T lymphocytes (CD3+) and B lymphocytes (CD21+). Cows of AL group showed a higher amount of B lymphocytes (CD21+) than negative cows. Cows of LP group had lower amounts of T cytotoxic lymphocytes (CD3+, CD8+), CD21+ CD11b+ B lymphocytes and CD21+, CD5+, CD11b+, B lymphocytes and increased amount of CD21 + CD5- CD11b- B lymphocytes. Cows of the AL group had lower rates of Escherichia coli phagocytosis by CD14+ macrophages and CH138+ leukocytes and cows of group LP had higher production of intracellular hydrogen peroxide. The positive cows for LEB had higher rates of death by necrosis of CD14+ macrophages and B lymphocytes (CD21+) and lower rates of apoptosis of CD14+ macrophages, CH138+ leukocytes and B lymphocytes (CD21+). These cows also had higher viability of CD14+ macrophages and CH138+ leukocytes. Cows on the LP group had higher rates of apoptosis and/or necrosis of CD14+ macrophages, necrosis of CH138+ leukocytes and viability of B lymphocytes (CD21+). Results suggested that the VLEB influence the immune response of the mammary gland.