This thesis involves an examination of the main international, regional and national legal regimes regulating marine renewable energy in England and Wales. Deriving from a complex patchwork of law and policy, developments have ensued in the absence of a distinct governing ‘legal regime’ and within a number of competing paradigms. This original synthesis attempts to identify lacunae, conflicts and connections within and between the span of legal genres that MRE evokes. Against a backdrop of climate change mitigation, the key findings show that despite the presence of political will for offshore renewable energies, MRE development faces a number of legal obstacles, all of which seek to protect other important public and private interests. Although predominantly satisfactory at the international level (international law of the sea), national private property rights, environmental protection laws and regulatory development controls each encompass particular legal incongruities that have the potential to act as barricades to development. This thesis discusses these issues and reaches conclusions as to potential areas for reform.

Marine Renewable Energy (MRE) in the form of wave, tidal and offshore wind has emerged as a potentially major component of strategies to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and combat climate change. One factor influencing the implementation of MRE technologies is acceptance by people living near developments. This study investigated (i) attitudes towards MRE in small island communities as likely host communities for MRE developments; (ii) the underlying factors and values shaping these attitudes; (iii) how communities viewed MRE with regard to their place attachments; (iv) the inclusion of communities attitudes into MRE decision-making; and (v) contributions to policy and practice of MRE development. Data were collected using a mixed-methods approach, employing questionnaire surveys and interviews in three case study communities: 1) the Orkney Islands in Scotland which have considerable experience with MRE; 2) the Shetland Islands, also a Scottish community but with somewhat less experience; and 3) the Isles of Scilly, an English community with limited MRE experience. These study sites provided an opportunity to examine attitudes towards MRE in areas with different levels of MRE experience and differing government administrations and consenting procedures, thus offering novel insights into how local contexts shape attitudes towards MRE. The theoretical position adopted was place attachment, and the study made steps towards understanding how place attachment processes operate when people evaluate MRE development locally. Processes of place attachment were found to be based on a continuous flow of interactions between people and places based on an evaluation of what happens in specific local contexts and how these are valued against sets of local priorities and preferences. The study found generally positive attitudes towards MRE, and identified local context, place-based values and the perceived effects of MRE as dominant in shaping support. The study thus found two important contributors that shaped attitudes: (i) local references and influences through which people observed issues, including socio-historical references, relational factors, and pragmatic factors, and (ii) local values, through which MRE was evaluated, which were established by residents based on evaluations of local characteristics, and how they related to strategies to maintain the long-term community continuity, and whether they were considered to be a threat, and therefore, a priority for continuity or for change. Based on these factors, a heuristic model was developed to visualise how attitudes towards MRE developed based on local contexts. Although complex interplays of local factors were observed, support for MRE development was largely based on its perceived local socio-economic benefits and perceptions of minimal environmental disruption. To incorporate local attitudes into decision-making, a place-based approach instead of a technology-based approach was advocated in which community priorities becomes the first focal point of siting processes. This approach is based both on the identified importance of local context for engaging the community and on ensuring appropriate siting based on engagement processes in which communities are appropriately represented and processes are tailored to local circumstances. An added important benefit from such an approach is that it allows for the inclusion of local knowledge and expertise in MRE siting.

Fishers are among the biggest commercial resource users in the marine environment. In order to meet international, national and local policies, the UK has to designate a suite of marine protected areas (MPAs) and reach marine renewable energy (MRE) targets. Inevitably, there will be conflict between these two industries and marine conservation. This study uses a multi-disciplinary approach to examine evaluate the suitability of various sources of data, which could be used to detect, assess, and ultimately predict, fishing effort displacement within the different sectors of the > 15 m fleet in the South West of the UK. Gear-specific Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) data from 2005-2008 was used to assess potential effort displacement due to Haig Fras, a proposed MPA and Wave Hub, a marine renewable energy installation (MREI). The spatial distribution of fishing activity was highly heterogeneous and distinct areas of intense fishing could be identified for all gear-types. A closure of Haig Fras would have the greatest impact on gillnetters. Scallop dredgers also occasionally use the area. The current closure at Wave Hub has the greatest impact on potters and whelkers whose geographic specialisation is most pronounced and who use the area extensively. Longliners also use the area disproportionately would be affected. A simple index of variability was developed in order to determine baselines and two other sources of data were used. High resolution seabed data and low resolution catch data. A semi structured interview was conducted with forty fishers to elicit further information on the challenges, barriers to progress and priority issues in relation to MRE those fishers face. The theme of discontent with the consultation process scored highly throughout. Fishers’ Knowledge (FK) another source of data also scored highly, although further work must be carried out to identify what aspects of this data are useful in assessment of fishing effort displacement.

Wave energy has the potential to contribute considerably to the UK's energy mix. The marine environment is already subjected to many anthropogenic pressures. There is a need to develop the industry as sustainably as possible. A key concern is the potential for underwater noise to affect marine life. A wave energy converter (WEC; BOLT Lifesaver, Fred Olsen Ltd.) was deployed at the Falmouth Bay marine renewable energy test site (FaBTest). The underwater sound levels were recorded at this site for a two week baseline period, a five-day installation period and intermittent operational and non-operational activity from March 2012 - November 2013. The recordings were also analysed for the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) indicator third octave bands of 63-Hz and 125-Hz for shipping noise. The median and modal sound levels in Falmouth Bay were found to be loudest in the frequency range 100 Hz - 1 kHz and affected by local shipping activity. During installation activity, the sound levels were louder at all frequencies recorded as compared to similar periods with no installation activity, with a mean difference of 6.9 dB Hz-1 in the range 10 Hz to 48 kHz. Long term marine renewable energy construction projects may affect the MSFD indicator bands. There was little overall difference in the average sound levels for the operational and non-operational periods as the median PSD levels were louder by an average of 0.04 dB Hz-1 during the operational activity as compared to the non-operational activity. The results of this study indicate that the effect of a single WEC device on the overall sound levels in Falmouth Bay is relatively low considering the substantial presence of shipping in the area. However, in the immediate vicinity of the device (<200 m), the sound produced was found to be of significance to marine animals. It therefore requires considering in future deployments, particularly at a site with little anthropogenic activity.

The Wave Hub facility in Cornwall (South West UK) is a marine renewables test site, predominantly designed for the purpose of trialling wave energy converters prior to commercialisation. Beach water-users such as bathers and surfers are of economic importance to tourism in Cornwall, and during theWave Hub consultation there were concerns among stakeholders that wave energy extraction would reduce the height and quality of coastal waves for sur ng, as well as a ecting sediment transport and beach morphology. This thesis investigates the interaction between wave conditions, beach morphology, and beach water-users, and proposes how a wave climate altered by wave energy extraction is likely to alter these interactions. A multidisciplinary research approach is adopted, involving the collection of qualitative and quantitative social data, the collection of over 5 years of physical wave and beach morphology data, and predictive modelling of the e ects of an attenuated wave climate. Quantitative, structured interview data from 403 water-users, collected at two beaches (Perranporth and Porthtowan) in the lee of Wave Hub, indicate that the population of water-users in the area is predominantly made up of surfers (53%), but bodyboarding and swimming/bathing are also popular activities (29% and 11%, respectively). In-depth semi-structured interviews reveal that water-user perceptions of wave energy extraction and its potential coastal impacts are constructed using intuitive risk perceptions, rather than technical understanding. These risk perceptions are constructed through a weighing of their perception of wave energy devices ('technology') and their perception of the coastal environment ('nature'). To investigate how waves are perceived, nearshore wave buoy measurements collected in 14 m water depth and transformed to breaking height, are compared to concurrent visual observations of mean breaker height and period. On average water-users underestimated signi cant wave height and period by 48% and 17%, respectively. Accounting for variations in wave perception, the wave preferences of di erent water-user groups are determined. Water-users are found to share a common preference towards wave v periods of 9 - 20 s, but di erent water-user groups are found to have di erent ranges of preferred wave height, which is found to govern whether wave energy extraction will decrease or increase the occurrence of preferred waves. Previous research indicates that three-dimensional (3D) beach morphology with crescentic bar and rip features is the primary controller of surf-zone hazard, and also strongly in uences the quality of sur ng waves at the coast. A dataset of 5.5 years of quasi-weekly bar measurements, and quasi-monthly intertidal surveys from Perranporth beach is used to quantify seasonal to inter-annual changes in threedimensionality. Integrated, cumulative uctuations in wave steepness, wave power, and relative tide range that occur over seasonal time scales are shown to be well correlated to seasonal uctuations in beach three-dimensionality. 3D morphology is well related to a disequilibrium term that predicts increases or decreases in threedimensionality by examining the di erence between instantaneous wave conditions and a temporally varying equilibrium condition, based on a weighted average of antecedent waves. This indicates that periods of wave regime change between erosive winter conditions with high steepness waves and accretive summer conditions with low steepness waves are related to the growth of 3D features, and vice versa, while extended periods with similar wave conditions drive the beach towards equilibrium. Using a range of realistic and extreme coastal wave height attenuation scenarios determined from previous Wave Hub modelling studies, it is predicted that none of the scenarios will have a universally positive or negative e ect on the occurrence of wave conditions preferred by water-users. When used to predict beach threedimensionality at Perranporth beach, the attenuated wave climates are found to reduce the variability in three-dimensionality. Even an extreme and unrealistic level of wave energy extraction (100% energy capture) was shown to have an insigni cant e ect on the occurrence of preferred waves, and only under an extraction scenario where the impact was not varied with wave frequency did this level of attenuation have a signi cant e ect on the predicted beach three-dimensionality. The inshore wave attenuation from Wave Hub is therefore likely to have an insigni cant e ect on wave conditions and beach morphology of relevance to beach water-users. A number of observations and recommendations are discussed for the development of a sound and robust methodological approach, which can be used to investigate the e ects of wave energy extraction on beach water-users at future wave farm sites.

Offshore wind farm (OWF) construction in the UK is progressing rapidly alongside increasing spatial pressures on marine ecosystems and social and economic activities. A need for increased protection of habitats, species and ecological processes that support environmental and economic benefits is being met by designation of marine protected areas (MPAs). Mitigation and spatial planning solutions are required to enable protection of vital ecological habitats, features and processes and support sustainable economic development. A potential solution is to co-locate OWFs and MPAs. This study uses a multi-disciplinary approach to examine if evidence on the environmental effects of existing OWFs and associated effects on fishing activity (as an existing resource use) benefits MPA goals. Through a systematic review and meta-analyses of existing data, knowledge of OWF effects on species abundance and economic effects on fishing were identified as key evidence gaps. The ecological evidence need was approached through a case study of ecological effects of North Hoyle OWF, North Wales, UK, using existing pre and post-construction monitoring data, as well as primary baited remote underwater video data, collected 5 years later (8 years post-construction). Results suggested habitat and species recovered to a stable state that showed some community differences to pre-construction conditions. The presence of OWF monopiles is likely to have increased existing heterogeneity of substratum and increased opportunities for scavenging species. Species benefitting and disadvantaged by habitat provided within the OWF reflected meta-analyses trends. Extended baseline monitoring to provide confident identification of natural levels of variation in sediment and fauna was lacking. Analysis of fishing activity and landings before and after OWF construction in three UK case study regions approached effects on resource users. Fishing activity in the three case study areas showed broad scale similarity to national trends. Small-scale activity patterns indicated greater reductions in mobile (towed) fishing gear effort near to operating OWFs than in static gear activity (using pots or static nets). Semi-structured interviews conducted with fishermen in each region revealed loss of ground and disruption as negative effects from OWFs, in addition to existing pressures. Benefits including habitat creation and species augmentation, as well as reduction of cumulative lost ground, were identified by fishermen from co-location of MPAs and OWFs. Ecological effects of OWFs suggested benefits from habitat creation, species augmentation and potential for protection of sandbank habitats between monopiles. Mitigation requirements were identified to maximise these potential benefits to an MPA network.

Seabirds are wide-ranging apex-predators and useful bio-indicators of marine systems. Nevertheless, changes are occurring in the marine environment, and seabirds require protection from the deleterious effects of climate change, fisheries, pollution, offshore development, introduced predators and invasive species. The UK supports internationally important populations of seabirds but also has vast wind and wave resources, therefore understanding how seabirds use the marine environment is vital in order to quantify the potential consequences of further exploiting these resources. In this thesis I first describe the range of wave energy converting devices operational or in development in the UK, and review the potential threats and benefits these developments may have for marine birds. I then synthesise data from colony-based surveys with detailed information on population dynamics, foraging ecology and near-colony behaviour, to develop a projection model that identifies important at-sea areas for breeding seabirds. These models show a positive spatial correlation with one of the most intensive at-sea seabird survey datasets, and provide qualitatively similar findings to existing tracking data. This approach has the potential to identify overlap with offshore energy developments, and could be developed to suit a range of species or whole communities and provide a theoretical framework for the study of factors such as colony size regulation. The non-breeding period is a key element of the annual cycle of seabirds and conditions experienced during one season may carry-over to influence the next. Understanding behaviour throughout the annual cycle has implications for both ecological theory and conservation. Bio-logging can provide detailed information on movements away from breeding colonies, and the analysis of stable isotope ratios in body tissues can provide information on foraging during the non-breeding period. I combine these two approaches to describe the migration strategies of northern gannets Morus bassanus breeding at two colonies in the north-west Atlantic, revealing a high degree of both winter site fidelity and dietary consistency between years. These migratory strategies also have carry-over effects with consequences for both body condition and timing of arrival on the breeding grounds. Finally, I investigate the threats posed to seabirds and other marine predators during the non-breeding period by collating information on the distributions of five different species of apex predator wintering in the Northwest African upwelling region. I describe the threat of over-fishing and fisheries bycatch to marine vertebrates in this region, and highlight the need for pelagic marine protected areas to adequately protect migratory animals throughout the annual cycle. In summary, the combination of colony-based studies, bio-logging, stable isotope analysis and modelling techniques can provide a comprehensive understanding of the interactions between individuals and the marine environment over multiple spatial and temporal scales.

Marine renewable energy promises to provide a significant contribution to the future electricity supply. It is estimated that 17% of today's UK electricity demand could be generated from wave and tidal sources. The ambition to harvest this resource is in the public interest, as it eases the pressures on energy security, holds the potential to reduce carbon emissions and has the prospect to create a new UK industry sector worth £15 billion. From an engineering perspective, marine energy is one of the least developed renewable energy technologies and has to be regarded as unproven. The reliability of components and devices in the harsh marine environment is one of the main engineering challenges. Reliability assessments and the assurance of acceptable reliability levels are dependant on the adequacy of failure information, which is scantily available for marine energy. This thesis shows that large failure rate uncertainties impede the reliability assessment for wave energy converters and how a suite of experimental, numerical and statistical methods can be applied to improve scarcely available reliability information. The analysis of component load conditions identifies fatigue as failure mode of concern and the fatigue life of mooring lines and marine power cables is quantified in a floating wave energy application. A Bayesian statistical approach and dedicated service-simulation component testing is proposed, and implemented to improve the quality of reliability estimates and to provide relevant data and assurance. The methods presented, along with the results, will assist reliability assessment and design during early development stages, and will inform the prediction of maintenance requirements during operation. Reliable marine energy systems will be the technical enabler for the successful transition of prototype devices to a commercially viable marine energy industry.

Este trabalho quantifica o potencial de extração de energias marinhas associadas a ondas e correntes na região de São Sebastião, identificando locais mais adequados para tal extração. Para isso, se utiliza o modelo University of Miami Wave Model (UMWM) para simulação de ondas e o Stevens Estuarine and Coastal Ocean Model (sECOM) para simulação de correntes, analisando o período de julho de 2016 a junho de 2017. A região imediatamente ao largo da Ilha de São Sebastião apresenta um dos maiores potenciais do Estado de São Paulo para extração de energia marinha, com intensidade média anual do fluxo de energia de ondas de 22,3 kW/m e de densidade de potência de correntes de até 473,2 W/m2. Outro ponto com potencial de extração de energia das correntes está situado no interior do Canal de São Sebastião, com valor médio de 370,0 W/m2. / This research quantifies the potential of marine energy due to wave and currents in the Sao Sebastiao region, identifying the most suitable sites for such extraction. For this purpose, it is used the University of Miami Wave Model (UMWM) for wave simulation and the Stevens Estuarine and Coastal Ocean Model (sECOM) for current simulation, analyzing the period from July 2016 to June 2017. The region near the offshore side of the Sao Sebastiao Island shows one of the greatest potential in the State of Sao Paulo for marine energy extraction, with the average annual wave energy flux of 22.3 kW/m and mean current power density of up to 473.2 W/m2. Another point with potential of energy extraction from currents is located within the Sao Sebastiao Channel with the average value of 370.0 W/m2.

Marine Renewable Energy (MRE) is a promising source of energy for the future. However, it is still under development and many challenges need to be overcome to develop competitive solutions. While the design of the station keeping system of traditional offshore oil and gas structures is driven mainly by their low frequency motions, MRE devices are installed at nearshore locations and move dynamically. Because of these criteria, MRE mooring systems require novel mooring systems and associated standards. MRE mooring standards need to take into account the highly dynamic behaviour of these systems, which can lead to large mooring loads. The nature of these loads needs to be investigated to improve the confidence in mooring design and to improve cost-effectiveness. The aim of this thesis is to develop the understanding of peak mooring loads on highly dynamic mooring systems, in particular, the environmental conditions associated with the loads. In addition, preliminary research into the response of the mooring systems to environmental conditions is presented. Both field tests and tank tests have been conducted. Field tests give insight into the behaviour of a dynamic mooring system in real sea conditions. Measuring the mooring loads and the environmental conditions - wave, and current if available – for several months, a methodology has been developed to detect peak mooring loads and identify the associated environmental conditions in order to compare them with the environmental conditions recorded throughout the field tests. The principal finding is that peak mooring loads occur for sea states with large but not always the highest significant wave height HS. The understanding of the effect of tidal conditions on peak mooring loads requires further work. A tank test of a dynamic mooring system in moderate sea states has been conducted to observe the dynamic behaviour of the mooring system. Tank tests enable detailed observations of the dynamic behaviour of a system in a well controlled environment and allow the calibration of a numerical model. The model can be used to investigate separate physical parameters. The results from this thesis will assist in the development of specific standards for MRE mooring systems. These standards are essential for the evolution of the MRE industry.