This study examined the effects of Physical Education Television (P.E.TV) on 69 southwest Virginia middle school students' subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and attitudes toward physical activity. Four intact 8th grade physical education/health classes were selected for the study. The students were randomly assigned to the classes by school administrators at the beginning of the school year. The classes were randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. The treatment group (two 8th grade classes) viewed 10 P.E.TV shows over a period of nine weeks. The control group (two 8th grade classes) had physical education/health class as normal. The same teacher taught all four classes. A pre-test post-test design was used. All students filled out a pre-test questionnaire at the beginning of the 9 weeks, and a post-test questionnaire at the end of the 9 weeks. The pre and post-test questionnaires included the "Children's Attitudes Toward Physical Activity" scale to assess the student's attitudes, and questions developed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1980, 1985) to assess subjective norm and perceived behavioral control. The pre-test questionnaire also included the "Weekly Activity Checklist", which was used to categorize students into groups based on their activity level. The first three hypotheses stated that P.E.TV would have a positive influence on the students' subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and attitudes toward physical activity. These hypotheses were tested using Analysis of Covariance, and rejected at the .05 level of significance. The fourth hypothesis stated that P.E.TV would have more of a positive influence on students categorized as "moderate to low active" than on students categorized as "high active". This attribute-treatment-interaction hypothesis was tested using a two way Analysis of Variance, and was also rejected at the .05. level. Suggestions for future studies are included in the discussion section. / Ph. D.

This descriptive qualitative study examines six eighth-grade students' thinking while solving probability problems. This study aimed to gather direct information on students' problem solving processes informed by the heuristics and biases framework. This study used purposive sampling (Patton, 1990) to identify eighth-grade students who were knowledgeable about probability and had reached the formal operational stage of cognitive development. These criterion were necessary to reduce the likelihood of students' merely guessing answers and important so that the researcher could distinguish between reasoning and intuition. The theoretical framework for this study was informed by Kahneman and Fredrick's (2002) recent revision to the heuristics and biases framework grounded in the research of Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman. Kahneman and Fredrick (2002) drew on dual process theory to explain systematic and predictable heuristic ways of thinking. Dual process theory hypothesizes that human thinking is divided into two different modes of processing. One mode, called System 1, is fast and linked to intuition, and the other, called System 2, is slow and linked to reasoning (Evans, 2008; Stanovich and West, 2000). Within dual process theory, System 1 thinking provides a credible system for explaining why people use heuristic thinking (Kahneman and Frederick, 2002). The recent revision to the heuristics and biases framework is focused on three heuristics, representativeness, conjunction fallacy, and availability. These three heuristics are believed to share the same mental process identified by Kahneman and Fredrick (2002), as the attribute substitution process. The clinical task based interview method was used in this study. This technique allowed the researcher to better observe and interact with the participants while exploring the students' probability thinking. The researcher also used think-aloud protocols to better reveal the organic thinking patterns of the students in real time (Ericsson and Simon, 1980; Fox, Ericsson, and Bets, 2010; Van Someren, Barnard, and Sandberg, 1994). The data from the interviews were analyzed using the constant comparison method (Glaser, 1965). This analysis revealed three categories that were combined with other analyses to create profiles for various thinking patterns observed by the researcher. The researcher identified patterns of thinking by students that were consistent with System 1 thinking and associated with the attribute substitution process (Kahneman and Fredrick, 2002). There were also situations in which students demonstrated ways of thinking consistent with System 2 thinking. However, unexpected ways of thinking were also identified by the researcher. For example, there were occasions when students substituted their fraction knowledge when solving probability problems and even seemed to equate probability with fractions. This type of thinking was referred to as the content substitution process in this study. This process occurred when students were using System 1 thinking as well as other types of thinking. In addition, the researcher observed students with thinking patterns that contained characteristics of both System 1 and System 2, which is referred to as slow intuition in this study. Slow intuition seemed to affect students' problem solving strategies as they wavered between multiple problem solving strategies that included either of the two substitution processes: attribute substitution and content substitution. This study contributes to the body of knowledge related to probabilistic thinking. In particular, this study informs our understanding of heuristic thinking used by eighth-grade students when solving probability problems. Further, teaching practices that draw on Fischbein's (1975, 1987) general notion of intuition might be developed and used to improve probability reasoning skills. These teaching practices target students that depend on the attribute substitution process and/or the content substitution process. Each of these heuristic ways of thinking may require different instructional techniques to help students develop more sound ways of thinking about probability. Regardless, teachers need to be informed of the extent that some students rely on their fraction knowledge when solving probability problems. / Ph. D.

Tracking, having separate advanced, standard, and/or remedial classes intended to homogeneously group students by perceived or actual ability, is a frequent practice used in U.S. schools, particularly at the secondary level. To promote educational equity, close achievement gaps, and counteract the de facto racial separation between advanced and standard-level courses, some districts and individual schools in Virginia are moving to detrack their offerings and stop offering separate advanced and standard-level courses. This qualitative case study explored how a middle school's newly adopted detracking policy with an honors-for-all approach impacted teachers' beliefs and pedagogy. Data were collected from documents and interviews with six school and district personnel and analyzed using inductive coding techniques until a mutually exclusive scheme of categories had been generated. The study concluded with the discussion, implications, recommendations, and conclusion of the results. The findings identified four categories that answered the research questions: opinions on honors-for-all, defining what "honors" means, instructional shifts in an honors-for-all classrooms, and challenges in practices. Overall, the study found that: (a) teachers' beliefs on tracking and honors-level classes did not change after implementation of detracking and there was a general divide in opinions between the teachers and non-teaching faculty, (b) there were varying definitions of what "honors" means among the district, school, and staff, (c) teachers' instruction shifted to adopt new pedagogical tools and strategies to meet the diverse learning needs in a mixed-ability honors classroom, and (d) teaching in an honors-for-all classroom was challenging, especially in differentiating for students' needs, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the accelerated standards in honors mathematics courses. Implications of the study included: (a) the necessity of having teacher buy-in when implementing a new programming initiative, (b) the benefits of vertical articulation with feeder elementary schools to prepare students for the rigor of middle school honors courses, (c) the need for common language and clear definitions across the district and school, and (d) the importance of providing professional development and support personnel to assist teachers in adopting new pedagogical practices in an honors-for-all setting. / Doctor of Education / Tracking, having separate advanced, standard, and/or remedial classes intended to homogeneously group students by perceived or actual ability, is a frequent practice used in U.S. schools, particularly at the middle and high school levels. To promote educational equity, some districts and schools in Virginia are considering detracking by no longer offering separate advanced and standard-level courses. This was a qualitative case study that used document analysis and interviews to explore how a middle school's newly adopted detracking policy with an honors-for-all approach impacted teachers' beliefs and instruction. Overall, the study found that teachers' beliefs about tracking and honors-level classes did not change after detracking, but teachers did adopt new instructional practices to meet the wide range of learning needs in the honors-for-all classrooms. The study also found that there was a lack of common language and definitions of what "honors" means and despite teachers' best efforts, teaching in an honors-for-all classroom was difficult, especially in the mathematics courses and given the timing of the new policy beginning immediately after the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings and implications from this study provide education leaders and policymakers with an understanding of teachers' perspectives on honors-for-all as other schools and districts consider detracking.

Thesis advisor: Deoksoon Kim / Most science education reform efforts are designed to promote science literacy for all students. In order for students to effectively apply abstract science concepts and knowledge to their lives, they must develop strong science literacy skills. Yet culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students, whose language and cultural backgrounds are different from mainstream American culture, often lack full access to all the educational avenues that would help them fully develop science literacy. Consequently, this dissertation explored and documented the ways educators have investigated and modified multiple aspects of science-based teaching and learning in order to benefit CLD students. This three-paper dissertation investigates three pedagogical approaches for supporting CLD students’ science literacy: culturally relevant pedagogy, translanguaging, and writing-to-learn. Research on these three pedagogical approaches is crucial for examining factors that affect CLD students in developing science literacy and providing recommendations on how to support them. To investigate CLD students’ experiences in-depth, this dissertation used a multiple-case study design to conduct analyses within each case as well as across all cases. The first paper investigated how middle school CLD students applied their family and cultural knowledge to learning science content in school. This study addressed the development of students’ science literacy by examining CLD students’ engagement with “HomeFun,” a set of culturally relevant activities. The second paper explored CLD students’ science literacy development in a translanguaging science classroom. By inquiring into participant students’ experiences with translanguaging and perceptions of its use, this study uncovered tensions between how translanguaging can facilitate students’ comprehension of science content while underscoring students’ desire to use English to improve their English language skills. The third paper examined how writing-to-learn can shape CLD students’ science literacy development. In a case study of six CLD students’ experiences with writing and content analysis of their compositions, this study revealed how writing helped students develop their thinking, effectively facilitating knowledge transfer from school-based contexts to real-world ones. Together, these studies demonstrate the usefulness of culturally relevant pedagogy, translanguaging, and writing-to-learn for fostering CLD students’ science literacy. Furthermore, each study offers insight into influences on CLD students’ ability to develop science literacy, such as the importance of family engagement or the pervasive nature of school-based monoglossic language ideologies. The three pedagogical approaches effectively support students socially, culturally, and academically, to make meaningful connections between science concepts and the world around them. In exploring the application points of culture, language, and literacy within science-based learning, this research offers science educators new insights and educational practices in support of CLD students. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2022. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Teacher Education, Special Education, Curriculum and Instruction.

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