Mitochondria are the main sites for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) generation within most cells. Structural and functional alterations of mitochondria due to genetic abnormalities of mitochondria can cause respiratory chain dysfunction. In this study, the important role of mitochondria in energy metabolism was determined by comparing the effect of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations on growth patterns and oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) enzyme activities of six isolated clones (B5, B12, D4, D9, E1 and E8); as well as the effect of ATP supplement to culture using the slowest growing clone. The isolated clones had shown distinct growth pattern and morphology. The difference in proliferation rates among the clones was ascertained by the doubling times (B5=26.4h. B12=43.2h. D4=25.7h. D9=33.6h. E1=26.9h and E8=28.8h). The clone's slow growth rate was likely the result of mitochondrial mutations in the 16S rRNA gene, ND1, ND4, ND6 and COX III. Five heteroplasmic mutations were found in clone B12 (G2480T, C2513G, A2520T, C9527T and C14263G), one heteroplasmic mutation in clone D9 (A4137G) and one homoplasmic mutation in clone D4 (C11496). The mutations in clone B12 appeared to be deleterious to the cell by disrupting mitochondrial OXPHOS activities and reducing energy output. Additionally, extracellular ATP supplement to OXPHOS deficient clone B12 facilitated cell growth and enhances the gene expression. Increased expression of mtDNA-encoded respiratory chain complexes observed in clone B12 compared to clone D4 may reflect mitochondrial genomic adaptation to perturbations in cellular energy requirements. The stimulation of mitochondrial biogenesis may be a cellular response in compensation for defects in OXPHOS associated with mtDNA mutations. My data support the hypothesis that the variability in functional manifestations of mtDNA is attributed to the nature of the mutation, number of mutation and the gene specifically affected. These results will help to further our understanding of the relationship between mitochondrial mutation and cellular function.

The Leptonycteris yerbabuenae is found in southern Arizona, Mexico, Guatemala, and El Salvador. Some females are migratory, mating in southern Mexico, and migrating to maternity roosts in northern Mexico and southern Arizona to give birth. Twelve microsatellite loci markers and the Mitochondrial DNA Control Region (CR) were amplified to examine population structure and phylogenetic relationships among roosts. Twelve polymorphic microsatellite loci were isolated from L. yerbabuenae. A total of sixteen localities in AZ and Mexico were sampled. The mtDNA CR fragment resulted in 102 haplotypes. The phylogenetic analyses resulted in two clades, but no observable geographic structuring. The average FST value across all loci and all sampled localities was 0.022. Program STRUCTURE analyses indicate one population (K=1) throughout the sampling area. These results suggest movement between maternity colonies and transient roosts in Arizona, Sonora, and Chamela, Management recommendations based on these results would be to manage as a single population.

The phylo-geography and population genetics of three Crotalus species in Southern Arizona (C. atrox, C. cerastes, and C. scutulatus) were examined using mitochondrial DNA genes and nuclear microsatellite DNA markers. My focus was twofold: (1) the phylo-geography and population structure in Southern Arizona and (2) possible genetic signatures of population fragmentation by linear barriers on rattlesnakes populations at Picacho Peak. My results show genetic signatures of geneflow restrictions in one species (C. atrox) which coincide with Interstate 10. I did not observe similar genetic effects in C. cerastes or scutulatus, possibly caused by smaller sample sizes and marker numbers. I found limited phylo-geographic and population genetic structure for all three species in Southern Arizona indicating large interconnected populations. This study provides wildlife management with a powerful genetic toolset and provides important baseline data for future assessment and monitoring efforts of important predators and their populations in the Sonoran desert habitat.

Enneacanthus chaetodon, the blackbanded sunfish, has become increasingly rare throughout its distribution in the Eastern United States. In Virginia, E. chaetodon maintains an endangered status and individuals persist in six populations. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and microsatellite data were assessed to determine the genetic characters and gene diversity of the Virginia populations. The results of these analyses were then compared to five additional populations; four from New Jersey and one from North Carolina that were known to have relatively good fitness and were not impacted severely by habitat alteration. The results of this study are relevant to selection of proper management techniques and strategies for this species. Mitochondrial DNA analyses detected no variation in the Virginia populations but significant (P F > 0.2) of inbreeding. The New Jersey and North Carolina populations demonstrated lower amounts of inbreeding than populations in Virginia. New Jersey displayed a significant (P < 0.05) amount of subdivision among populations compared to Virginia. Hypothesis testing supported the contention that the regions are significantly different from one another and that Virginia populations may have gone through one or more population bottlenecks in the past, explaining the low levels of diversity observed and significantly high inbreeding coefficients. Captive breeding programs could be implemented as a management measure to increase population numbers and restore fish into areas where they have been known to inhabit in the recent past. From a proper management perspective, habitat protection and maintenance are more important than supplementation to population survival. Success of either approach with Virginia populations would provide a useful model for managing small populations of blackbanded sunfish in other regions.This project was supported by a grant from the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries (VDGIF), grant #ED0817BB.

To further facilitate mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence analysis for human identity testing, a better understanding of its mutation rate is needed. Prior to the middle 1990's the mutation rate applied to a forensic or evolutionary analysis was determined by phylogenetic means, This method involved calculating genetic distances as determined by amino acid or DNA sequence variability within or between species. The mutation rate as determined by this method ranged from 0.025-0.26 nucleotide substitutions/ site/ myr (million years). With the recent advent of mtDNA analysis as a tool in human identity testing an increased number of observations have recently come to light calling into question the mutation rate derived from the phylogenetic method. The mutation rate as observed from forensic analysis appears to be much higher than that calculated phylogenetically. This is an area that needs to be resolved in human identity testing. Mutations that occur within a maternal lineage can lead to a possible false exclusion of an individual as belonging to that lineage. A greater understanding of the actual rate of mutation within a given maternal lineage can assist in determining criteria for including or excluding individuals as belonging to that lineage. The method used to assess the mutation rate in this study was to compare mtDNA sequences derived from the HVI and HVII regions of the D-loop from several different maternal lineages. The sequence information was derived from five unrelated families consisting of thirty-five individuals. One intergenerational mutational event was found. This derives to approximately 1.9 nucleotide substitutions/ site/ myr. This mutation rate was very consistent with several other similar studies. This increased mutation rate needs to be considered by forensic testing laboratories performing mtDNA sequence analysis prior to formulating any conclusive results.

Four populations of nine-banded armadillos, Dasypus novemcinctus, were investigated in the south-central United States in order to assess genetic variation in an isolated population (Electric Island, Lake Hamilton, Garland County, Arkansas); a semi-isolated population (Arkansas Post, Arkansas County, Arkansas), and two free ranging populations (southern Arkansas and central Texas). A 233 basepair sequence of the D-loop region of mitochondrial DNA was sequenced in individuals from each population. Individuals and populations were compared to assess relatedness among populations and individuals. Higher sequence diversity was detected in the semi-isolated population, while lower sequence diversity was observed in the isolated and free ranging populations. Overall, all populations exhibited low genetic variation when compared to genetic variation for other mammals. The results support the hypothesis that rapid range expansion combined with the organism's unique reproductive strategies have promulgated low genetic variation in the North American populations of nine-banded armadillos.

La diatomée Haslea ostrearia a longtemps été considérée comme le seul organisme apte à produire un pigment surnuméraire bleu nommé marennine, connu pour son rôle dans le verdissement des branchies des huîtres affinées dans les bassins ostréicoles. Certains des mécanismes et facteurs influençant l’entrée de cette diatomée en phase de reproduction sexuée (auxosporulation) ont été mis en évidence, tels la concentration cellulaire, la qualité de l’éclairement incident, ou le préconditionnement des algues. La découverte dans le cadre d’un projet européen, de populations de diatomées apparentées à H. ostrearia en divers points du globe a conduit à la description et l’identification de trois nouvelles espèces de diatomées bleues : Haslea silbo sp. nov. des îles Canaries, Haslea karadagensis sp. nov., provenant de Mer Noire et Haslea provencialis sp. nov. de Méditerranée Occidentale. La première phylogénie moléculaire de ces espèces de diatomées bleues, ainsi que d’autres espèces de diatomées appartenant au genre Haslea, a été réalisée en utilisant trois marqueurs génétiques, la cassette ribosomale ITS1-5,8S-ITS2, le gène chloroplastique rbcL ainsi qu’un fragment du gène mitochondrial cox1. Ces trois marqueurs moléculaires montrent que les diatomées bleues forment un clade distinct au sein du genre Haslea. De plus, l’existence de deux populations d’H. ostrearia originaires des côtes françaises et suédoises sexuellement compatibles a permis d’étudier la variabilité génétique intraspécifique, en mettant en évidence quelques différences au niveau de la séquence du gène cox1. Ces différences ont également permis d’étudier chez la progéniture obtenue par croisements de ces populations, la répartition et l’héritabilité de l’ADN mitochondrial. Par ailleurs, la spectophotométrie UV-visible et la spectométrie Raman ont été utilisées pour poursuivre la caractérisation physico-chimique des pigments bleus de ces diatomées. L’existence de pigments distincts chez les nouvelles espèces de diatomées bleues a permis de proposer une première classification chimiotaxonomique. Enfin, les activités biologiques de la marennine et du pigment de l’espèce ukrainienne, H. karadagensis, ont été étudiées grâce à la détermination de leurs propriétés antibactériennes et antivirales. / The diatom Haslea ostrearia has long been considered as the only organism able to produce a blue pigment called marennine, known for greening oysters’ gills in fattening ponds. Key factors for the triggering of this diatom’s sexual reproduction (auxosporulation) have been evidenced, such as cell concentration, light quality or light conditioning. In the aim of a European project, new species of blue diatoms have been discovered : Haslea silbo sp. nov. from the Canary Islands, Haslea karadagensis sp. nov. from the Black Sea and Haslea provincialis sp. nov. from the Mediterranean Sea. A first molecular phylogeny of the genus Haslea has been made using three markers : ITS1-5.8S-ITS2, rbcL and cox1. Blue diatoms appeared to belong to a distinct cluster inside the genus. Availability of two H. ostrearia populations from France and Sweden, sexually compatibles but bearing differences in their cox1 sequences allowed studying the distribution and inheritance of the mitochondrial DNA during auxosporulation. Moreover, UV-visible spectrophotometry and Raman spectometry have been used for pigments’ characterization. Existence of distinct pigments in the newly described species led to the proposal of a chemotaxonomic classification. Finally, biological activities of marennine and H. karadagensis’ pigments have been studied in regards of their antibacterial and antiviral properties.

The mitochondrial control region (MCR) has played an important role as a population genetic marker in many taxa but sequencing of complete eukaryotic genomes has revealed that nuclear integrations of mitochondrial DNA (numts) are abundant and widespread across many taxa. If left undetected, numts can inflate mitochondrial diversity and mislead interpretation of phylogenetic relationships. Comparative analyses of complete genomes in humans, orangutans and chimpanzees, and preliminary studies in gorillas have revealed high numt prevalence in great apes, but rigorous comparative analyses across taxa have been lacking. The present study aimed to systematically compare the evolutionary dynamics of MCR numts in great apes. Firstly, an inventory numts derived from the region containing the MCR subdomains was carried out by genomic BLAST searches. Secondly, presence/absence of each candidate numt was determined in great ape taxa to estimate numt insertion rate. Thirdly, alternative mechanisms of numt insertion, either through direct mitochondrial integration or post-insertional duplications, were also assessed. Fourthly, the effect of nuclear and mitochondrial environment on patterns of nucleotide composition and substitution was assessed through sequence comparisons of nuclear and mitochondrial paralogous sequences. Finally, numts in the gorilla genome were identified through two experimental methods and their use as polymorphic genetic markers was then evaluated in a sample of captive gorillas from U.S. zoos. A deficit of MCR numts covering two particular mitochondrial subdomains was detected in all three apes examined, and is largely attributed to rapid loss of mitochondrial and nuclear sequence identity in the mitochondrial genome. Insertion rates have varied during the great ape evolution and exhibit substantial differences even between related taxa. The most likely mechanism of numt insertion is direct mitochondrial integration through Non-Homologous-End-Joining Repair. Transition/transversion ratios differed significantly between both mitochondrial and nuclear sequences and between numts from coding and non-coding mitochondrial regions. A previously documented upward bias in the GC content of the primate mitochondrial genome was confirmed and the extent of this bias relative to the corresponding numt sequences increased with numt age. Five gorilla-specific numts were isolated, including three exhibiting insertional polymorphisms that will be used in future population genetic studies in free-range gorilla.

O Brasil é o país mais rico do mundo em espécies de psitacídeos (cerca de 74), sendo 17 delas ameaçadas de extinção. Entre elas está a arara-azul (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) que é considerada vulnerável e pode se tornar ameaçada num futuro próximo, em conseqüência do intenso tráfico ilegal e perda do seu habitat. No presente estudo estimamos os níveis de variabilidade e caracterizamos a estrutura genética de populações naturais de A. hyacinthinus. Analisamos 10 locos de microssatélites de 98 indivíduos e seqüências concatenadas de genes mitocondriais (ND5, citocromo-b e ND2; 2123 pb total) de 80 indivíduos. O índice de diversidade genética foi considerado baixo em relação a outras espécies de psitacídeos. Além disso, os índices RST e a análise bayesiana dos dados de microssatélites indicaram moderada estruturação genética entre indivíduos de quatro regiões geográficas (Pantanal norte, Pantanal sul, norte e nordeste), mas os índices de FST indicaram diferenciação somente entre três regiões (norte e nordeste sem diferenciação). A estruturação entre essas três regiões foi congruente com a forte estruturação genética apontada pelos índices de FST e pela rede de haplótipos das seqüências mitocondriais. Baseado nos dados mitocondriais o tempo de divergência entre os grupos genéticos de A. hyacinthinus foi estimado em 16 a 42 mil anos atrás, o que corresponde ao final do Pleistoceno. Ainda, os resultados apontaram para uma população demograficamente estável ao longo do tempo, o que pode indicar que a baixa variabilidade pode ser uma característica da espécie. Entretanto, a rede de haplótipos apresenta forma em estrela com alguns haplótipos de baixa freqüência, o que pode indicar expansão recente, principalmente para região nordeste. Baseado nos dados de estruturação genética populacional, foi possivel indicar a possível origem de indivíduos apreendidos e sem procedência conhecida, o que é importante para realizar ações preventivas de repressão e fiscalização. Adicionalmente, foram analisados sete locos de microssatélites de filhotes amostrados no mesmo ninho (mesma estação reprodutiva, estações reprodutivas consecutivas e estações alternadas) em duas regiões do Pantanal. Os resultados sugerem que a espécie é predominantemente monogâmica estrita, mas há pelo menos 12,5% de paternidade extra-par e 6,5% de parasitismo de ninho. Além disso, foram confirmados dados obtidos em campo de que muitos casais utilizam o mesmo ninho em anos consecutivos e alternados. Finalmente, padronizamos a sexagem molecular de amostras de penas de muda. Concluindo, os resultados genéticos obtidos nesse trabalho trazem informações sobre os processos envolvidos na história evolutiva dessa espécie, além de contribuir com informações sobre o comportamento reprodutivo das araras-azuis proporcionando mais subsídios para elaboração de programas de conservação. / Brazil has the highest number of parrot species in the world (about 74), 17 of them endangered. Among them is the hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), which is considered vulnerable and could become endangered in the near future, due to the intense illegal traffic and loss of habitat. In this study we estimated levels of variability and characterized the genetic structure of natural populations of hyacinth macaws. We analyzed 10 microsatellite loci from 98 individuals and concatenated sequences of mitochondrial genes (ND5, cytochrome b and ND2, 2,123 bp total) from 80 individuals. The genetic diversity index was low compared to those from other species of parrots. In addition, RST indeces and Bayesian analysis of microsatellite data showed moderate genetic structure among individuals of four regions in Brazil (north Pantanal, south Pantanal, north and northeast), but FST indeces indicate differentiation only between three regions (north and northeast without differentiation). This is in accordance with the strong genetic structure indicated by FST indeces and haplotype network based on mitochondrial sequences. Based on the mitochondrial data, the time of divergence of the genetic groups of hyacinth macaws was estimated to have occurred 16 to 42 thousand years ago, which corresponds to the late Pleistocene. Still, the results suggest that the population has been demographically stable over time, which may indicate that the low variability levels may be a characteristic of the species. However, the haplotype network presents a star shape, which indicate recent expansion, specially in the northeast. Additionally, given the population genetic structure data, it was possible to identify the most probable region of origin of apprehended individuals, this information is important to plan preventive and repressive control. Additionally, we analyzed seven microsatellite loci of chicks sampled in the same nest (same breeding season, alternate breeding seasons and consecutive seasons) in two regions of the Pantanal. The results suggest that the species is predominantly monogamous, but there is at least 12.5% of extra-pair paternity and 6.5% of brood parasitism. Furthermore, the genetic data is congruent with field observations that suggest that many couples return to the same nest in consecutive and alternative breeding seasons. Finally, we standardized for a molecular sexing protocol for molten feathers. In conclusion, the genetic results obtained in this study provide information about the processes involved in the evolutionary history and the reproductive behavior of hyacinth macaws that may help plan conservation actions.

Pimelodella Eigenmann & Eigenmann, 1888 é um dos gêneros mais especiosos pertencentes à família Heptapteridae, com 71 espécies distribuídas desde o sul da América do Sul até o Panamá e América Central. A compreensão das relações filogenéticas desse grupo é ainda bastante confusa devido a dificuldades na identificação das espécies por suas semelhanças morfológicas, além da sua ampla diversidade e distribuição. Para melhor entendermos as relações existentes entre as espécies pertencentes a este gênero, nosso trabalho utilizou abordagens moleculares e morfológicas e foi organizado em quatro capítulos. No primeiro é apresentada uma breve revisão da bibliografia relacionada à Pimelodella, a área de estudo e as ferramentas que foram utilizadas para tentarmos compreender as relações filogenéticas e biogeográficas das espécies pertencentes ao gênero. Assim, para respondermos às questões propostas, no segundo capítulo avaliamos o potencial do método do código de barras do DNA para auxiliar na identificação das espécies, combinado com a análise de alguns caracteres morfológicos diagnósticos. Essas metodologias se mostraram muito úteis e eficazes, e nossos resultados indicam que é possível identificar grande parte das espécies com as metodologias escolhidas. O terceiro capítulo teve como objetivo estabelecer, as relações filogenéticas entre as espécies de Pimelodella incluídas nesse estudo, utilizando para tanto quatro genes mitocondriais (ATPase 6 e 8, citocromo b, COI e ND2). Através da análise de parcimônia foram obtidas seis árvores mais parcimoniosas. Os valores de suporte foram maiores nos nós mais internos. No quarto capítulo, apresentamos uma análise genético-populacional baseada em cinco loci de microssatélites na espécie troglóbia das cavernas da região do PETAR (Parque Estadual Turístico do Alto Ribeira). Os loci amplificados apresentaram altos níveis de polimorfismo e o número de alelos por loci variou de 9 no loco PC58 a 34 no locos PC87, o número médio de alelos por locus foi de 21,2. A estimativa global de FST, considerando-se todas as populações e todos os loci, foi significativamente diferente de zero (FST = 0,1353) sugerindo a ocorrência de diferenciação populacional na amostra. / Pimelodella Eigenmann & Eigenmann, 1888 is one of the most specious genus of the Siluriform family Heptapteridae, with 71 species distributed from southern South America to Panamá and Central America. The understanding of phylogenetic relationships within the genus is somewhat confusing due to the difficulties in morphological identification and its broad distribution. In order to assess the problems with species identification and phylogenetic relationships our work employed morphological and molecular tools is it is organized in four chapters. The first chapter contains an introduction to the problems and a revision of what its known in Pimelodella, as well as a brief description of the tools used. The second chapter deals with species identification and its subdivided into: morphology and the used of DNA barcoding. The results obtained with the combination of these two methodologies indicated, for example, that Pimelodella gracilis might comprise more than one species. The third chapter presents a phylogenetic analysis of the species included in this work based on nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial genome. The parsimony analysis recovered six most parsimonious trees as expected the support values are larger towards the deeper nodes. The fourth chapter presents an population analysis based on five microsatellite loci to investigate whether or not the troglobitic species P. kronei displays population structuring in the caves of the PETAR (Parque Estadual Turístico do Alto Ribeira). The loci presented high polymorphism, the number of alleles raged from 9 in the locus PC58 to 34 in the locus PC87, the mean number of alleles per loci was 21,2. All loci showed private alleles PC17 and PC58 had 3 alleles and PC90 showed 22 private alleles distributed among all sampling locales. The global FST, estimative was significantly different from zero (FST = 0,1353) suggesting population.