Das Leben der beiden Autoren Jean Bodin und Michel de Montaigne wurde von den blutigen Auseinandersetzungen der französischen Religionskriege geprägt. Aus diesem Grund besitzt die Religon in ihren Werken eine herausgehobene Stellung. In "Les six livres de la République" von Jean Bodin gründet dieser sein Prinzip der Souveränität auf die Religion. Diese gibt also die Grundregeln des menschlichen Zusammenlebens vor. In seinem Religionsgespräch "Colloqium Heptaplomeres" vertieft Bodin diese Gedanken und entwickelt ein Toleranzkonzept, das die Möglichkeit des Zusammenlebens verschiedener Religionen in einem Staat vorsieht. Die Religion ist bei Jean Bodin also vor allem ein Instrument, um die Gesellschaft zu organisieren. Michel de Montaigne betrachtet in seinen "Essais" die Religion weit kritischer. Für ihn ist sie eine Instanz, die die Menschen trennt anstatt sie zu vereinen. Er warnt vor ihren zerstörerischen Folgen. Gleichwohl entwickelt Montaigne ein Toleranzkonzept, das auf seiner Grundüberzeugung der Gewaltfreiheit beruht. Es zeigt sich, dass beide Autoren die Religion und ihre Nützlichkeit für die Gesellschaft unter verschiedenen Blickwinkeln betrachten. / The lives of the authors Jean Bodin and Michel de Montaigne were greatly influenced by the violent struggles of the French religious wars. For this reason, religion had a deep impact on their works. In his book "Les six livres de la République", Bodin builds his ideal of sovereignity on a religious background. For him, religion is the foundation of human society. In his talks on religion "Colloquium Heptaplomeres" Bodin deepens his thoughts and develops a concept of toleration, which allows different religions to coexist within one country. For Bodin, religion is a tool to organise society. Michel de Montaigne has a more skeptical view on religion in his work "Essais". From his point of view, religion builds up barriers between people instead of unifying them. He predicts disstrous consequences caused by religious divisiveness. But Montaigne also develops a diverse concept of toleration, which is based on his belief in nonviolence. Hence it is evident, that both autors have a different view on religion and its utility for society.

Registra y fundamenta el proceso de la disputa de América sobre la naturaleza del hombre americano y dentro de ella, el protagonismo intelectual de Michel de Montaigne, así como las concepciones filosóficas helenísticas que le sirvieron para la temprana culminación de la controversia. Para ello analiza la obra Ensayos en la que sostiene, frente a quienes afirmaban que el americano era un ser bárbaro, salvaje, inferior, prematuro o degenerado, que aquel era un ser humano distinto, con otra cultura y costumbres. / Tesis

Identificar as características fundamentais da Educação em Michel de Montaigne (França, 1533-1592), levantando e relacionando influências e contribuições marcantes do ceticismo em sua filosofia e reflexão pedagógica e educacional é a preocupação primeira do presente texto. Para tanto, o itinerário percorrido procura compreender, inicialmente, as condicionantes históricas às quais o pensamento montaigneano estava inserido, pensando separadamente as transformações paradigmáticas fundamentais ocorridas em diversas ambiências entre o final do Medievo e o Renascimento. O destaque se dá a dois pontos cruciais: às transformações filosófico-pedagógicas e às principais características do ceticismo antigo que são retomadas no cenário de crise renascentista, procurando criar espaço para refletirmos o quanto o contexto e o cenário pré-moderno de instabilidades e incertezas são cruciais para compreendermos o lugar e o papel da retomada da corrente cética, especialmente do ceticismo pirrônico, e suas influências no pensamento do filósofo francês. Em seguida, nos enveredamos pela aventura de ensaiar a exploração das ideias centrais de Montaigne sobre a Educação, inserindo-as sob o lume de suas condicionantes históricas e as prerrogativas ensaísticas do seu pensamento, levantando reflexões acerca de alguns sinais e presenças do ceticismo em seus ensaios educacionais. Por fim, em um terceiro momento, nos atentamos ao trato mais específico da relação entre ceticismo e educação em Montaigne, pensando o lugar da equipolência e da suspensão do juízo, elementos fundamentais do ceticismo pirrônico, na nova maneira pedagógica instaurada pelo autor dos Ensaios, fundamentando o cerne da crítica montaigneana ao papel antipedagógico do dogmatismo e revalidando o papel educacional da dúvida no constante processo de formação de sujeitos independentes/autônomos. / Identify the main characteristics of Education on Michel de Montaigne’s thought (France, 1533-1592), analyzing and relating influences and marking contributions of Skepticism on his philosophy and on his pedagogical and educational reflection is the first intention of this paper. For so, the itinerary built here intends to comprehend, initially, the historical conditions on which Montaigne’s thought was inserted, examining separately the most important modifications that happened in diverse atmospheres between the end of Middle Ages and Renaissance. The prominence is given for two decisive points: the philosophical-pedagogical modifications and the main characteristics of the Ancient Skepticism, which are recovered at the crisis’ environment of Renaissance, searching to create a space to think how the pre-Modern context of instability and uncertainness is decisive to comprehend the place and the function of Skepticism’s retaking, specially of Pyrrho’s Skepticism and its influences on Montaigne’s thought.In the following, it goes toward Montaigne’s essential ideas about Education, inserting them under historical conditions and essayistic prerogative of his thought, making reflections about some signs and presences of Skepticism on his educational essays. In the end, on a third moment, it turns attention to the most specific theme of relation between Skepticism and Education on Montaigne’s philosophy, analyzing the paper of equipollency and judge suspension (fundamental elements of Pyrrho’s Skepticism) at the new pedagogical manner initiated by Essais author, laying foundations for the heart of Montaigne’s critic on dogmatism and its anti-educational paper, and restoring validity of doubt’s educational paper at the constant process of independent/autonomous subjects formation.

In “Bodies of Wisdom,” I reassert the primacy of the body in the philosophical practices of two early modern French authors, Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) and Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), whose writings have been associated with the ancient tradition of “philosophy as a way of life.” Harkening back to the Classical understanding of philosophy as a form of medicine, these authors’ works rely a good deal on somatic and/or medical terminology to describe states of the soul and philosophical practices more generally. While there exists a wide body of literature that addresses the medical analogy in Hellenistic philosophers, few commentators have ventured to read the analogy literally, and none thus far have done so for authors of the early modern period. In this dissertation, I reclaim the literal relationship between medicine and philosophy by examining instances in both authors where descriptions of health and illness can be read both metaphorically (“spiritually”) and literally (“somatically”). Philosophy is not just like medicine in that it seeks to bring about individual well-being; it is medicine in the fullest sense, because the exercises intended to bring about well-being must pass through the body in order to give lasting shape to the life of the practitioner. Many scholars have acknowledged Pascal’s inheritance of Montaigne’s moderate skepticism, and as one of history’s most astute – and sometimes acerbic – readers of Montaigne, Pascal was uniquely poised to highlight those aspects of Montaigne’s philosophy that attenuated the reader’s belief in the power of human reason. This meant that for both authors, there had to be some more reliable alternative to the reasoning mind to arrive at an understanding of truth. The body, it turns out, served just such a purpose. Although Montaigne and Pascal had very different purposes in writing the Essais and the Pensées, respectively, I show how a mutual concern for empirical certainty amidst the tenuousness of philosophical and religious opinion precipitated a return to bodily experience, as the most viable means of knowing the self and the world. Despite the widespread conception of the early modern period as one of “thoroughgoing” – and one might say, Cartesian – dualism between body and mind, I argue that Montaigne and Pascal are evidence of a countertrend: their writings suggest that we cannot think our way to philosophical virtue; we must enact that virtue through our bodies, using them as tools for interpretation and modification of our internal states. I thereby call into question a distinction that is commonly made between somatic techniques, on the one hand, and spiritual exercises, on the other, in much of the literature on philosophy as a way of life. The implications of this are far-reaching: if the suffering that philosophy purports to treat is at once spiritual and somatic, then the “spiritual” exercises designed to address this suffering also borrow a great deal from the soma, and should be advertised as such. Further, if spiritual health is indeed contingent on our relationship to the soma, then the classic definition of philosophy as a “spiritual” practice (namely, one associated with the logos) needs to be expanded to include the material and/or somatic dimensions of the discipline. Although I try to provide a clear roadmap for how these authors go about spiritual healing, I recognize that the trajectory to spiritual health is seldom very direct. Surely, we can find examples of somatic exercises that appear to have a predictable effect on the mind and, inversely, spiritual exercises that yield positive physical results. However, the process of effecting change and training for virtue is almost never unidirectional. The constant trafficking between body and mind, evidenced most abundantly by the passions, belies a much less tidy relationship between the two faculties. To describe this relationship, I rely both on early modern medical therapeutics and on Pierre Bourdieu’s twentieth-century conception of habitus. Viewed through the lens of habitus, the practice of philosophy can be conceived as a process of embodiment, wherein the practitioner appropriates and accommodates in a bodily way the virtues traditionally aligned with the good life—before realizing that, as habitus, he or she is always, already well-adapted to the good and thus endowed with a certain form of health from the beginning.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--York University, 2001. Graduate Programme in Social & Political Thought. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 297-323). Also available on the Internet. MODE OF ACCESS via web browser by entering the following URL: http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/yorku/fullcit?pNQ66341.

Thesis (Th. M.)--Westminster Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, 1988. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 74-82).

Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of St Andrews, April 2008.

Submitted by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-23T20:06:33Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DissNSM.pdf: 1265606 bytes, checksum: f349efaf6cbc897efbb6657d8c0a1048 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-23T20:06:42Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissNSM.pdf: 1265606 bytes, checksum: f349efaf6cbc897efbb6657d8c0a1048 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ronildo Prado (ronisp@ufscar.br) on 2017-08-23T20:06:47Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissNSM.pdf: 1265606 bytes, checksum: f349efaf6cbc897efbb6657d8c0a1048 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-08-23T20:06:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DissNSM.pdf: 1265606 bytes, checksum: f349efaf6cbc897efbb6657d8c0a1048 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-03-07 / Não recebi financiamento / Cette recherche a conduit a une réflexion sur la question de l'éducation dans les Essais de Michel de Montaigne. Ensuit, dans le premier moment, nous avons cherché à comprendre les caractéristiques qui ont marqué l'écriture d´Essais, à savoir, la forme essayistique, une fois que la forme et le contenu sont associés quand nous parlons des textes montaigniens. De cette façon pars de cette particularité de l'écriture, nous avons sélectionné les chapitres dans lesquels le sujet est plus présent et aprés ce choix, nous avons cherché à comprendre les lectures que Montaigne a faite des penseurs gréco-romains, ainsi que l'influence qu'ils s´ont exercé sur l'essayiste, en plus, l´inflexions que Montaigne a opéré sur le thème de l'éducation. On pourrait affirmer que Montaigne, à plusieurs égards se distancie de ses prédécesseurs et au lieu de faire une proposition d´une éducation dans la conception universel, il propose un processus de formation très particulière, qu'il prend en compte les individualités de chaque sujet et prend comme référence ses propres expériences formatrices. Ainsi, Montaigne propose une éducation qui prend le monde comme un livre et qui il se produit de nombreuses différentes façons: avec le précepteur, avec des livres, à travers les voyages et le « commerce des hommes», à savoir, la «conversation ». Montaigne transmetre un nouveau signifié au terme conversation, qui étais pris généralement en considération, par les traités italiens, comme un art de parler bien, et le donne un sens formative que il s´approche de ce que Cicéron entendait par conversatio. De cette façon, Montaigne comprend la formation comme un processus continu et la «conversation» - conference - serait le moyen par lequel les âmes s´exerceraient et les hommes formeraient ses jugements pour vivre et mourir bien, et donc c´est une des étapes les plus significatifs de ce processus.Cependant, Montaigne va bien au-delà de ces questions pour développer une critique aux collèges de leur temps et l'éducation par rapport à des méthodes répétitives et les châtiments corporels au détriment de la défense d’une formation qui fait l’instruction doucement et que compte tenu de la singularité de chaque enfant, ce qu'Il rend que, leurs idées d'éducation, sont encore courant. / A presente pesquisa buscou investigar a temática da educação nos Ensaios de Michel de Montaigne. Para tanto, num primeiro momento, buscou-se entender as características que marcam a escrita dos Ensaios, ou seja, a forma ensaística, já que forma e conteúdo estão associados quando falamos dos textos montaignianos. Partindo dessa peculiaridade da escrita, selecionamos os capítulos nos quais o tema se faz mais presente e, a partir dessa escolha, buscamos compreender as leituras que Montaigne fez dos pensadores greco-romanos, bem como as influências que estes exerceram sobre o ensaísta, além de investigarmos as inflexões que Montaigne operou com relação ao tema da educação. Poder-se-ia afirmar que Montaigne, em diversos aspectos, se distancia de seus antecessores e ao invés de propor uma educação numa acepção universal, propõe um processo formativo muito particular, que leva em consideração as individualidades de cada sujeito e toma como referência suas próprias experiências formativas. Com isso, Montaigne propõe uma educação que toma o mundo como livro e se dá das mais diversas maneiras: com o preceptor, com os livros, por meio das viagens e no “comércio dos homens”, ou seja, pela “conversação”. Assim, Montaigne ressignifica o termo conversação, que comumente era tomado como uma arte de falar bem pelos tratados italianos, e atribui-lhe um sentido formativo que se aproxima daquilo que Cícero entendia por conversatio. Desse modo, Montaigne entende a formação como um processo constante, e a “conversação” – conference – seria o meio pelo qual as almas se exercitariam, e os homens formariam os seus juízos para viverem e morrerem bem, sendo, portanto, uma das etapas mais significativas desse processo. No entanto, Montaigne vai muito além dessas questões, ao desenvolver uma crítica aos colégios de seu tempo e à educação baseada em métodos repetitivos e em castigos corporais, em detrimento da defesa de uma formação que instrui docemente e que considera a singularidade de cada infante, e isto faz que as suas ideias sobre educação sejam tão atuais.

Resumo: O presente trabalho visa analisar a ideia de morte em Montaigne conforme ela se apresenta em seus primeiros ensaios, aqueles pertencentes à chamada “fase estoica”. Sempre que conveniente e possível comparamo-los às passagens de Sêneca que serviram de base às reflexões montaigneanas e aos ensaios mais maduros de modo a podermos nos pronunciar com relação à questão da evolução dos Ensaios, mais especificamente, com relação à existência, ou não, de uma “fase estoica” em seu pensamento. A análise do papel da razão é central ao longo de todo o estudo porque conforme este mude, ou não, há uma repercussão direta sobre a suposta evolução. O conceito de natureza ocupa papel de igual destaque uma vez que cremos ser na conjugação entre as funções da razão e da natureza que a filosofia de Montaigne adquire um de seus importantes traços de originalidade.

Michel de Montaigne a élaboré un imposant corpus au centre de ses Essais afin de rendre hommage à Raimond Sebond sans toutefois corroborer sa théologie philosophique ni reconnaître la pyramide des êtres1 à l'avant sommet de laquelle l'homme se situe par sa dignité et son esprit, comme preuve de l'existence de Dieu. L'Apologie de Raimond Sebond a été une opportunité de résumer sa propre pensée philosophique en réduisant fortement la différence entre les individus humains et l'animal. En dépit de l'extrême variabilité des individus, chacun porte en lui-même une forme entière de la condition humaine. D'après Montaigne, seul un fidéisme religieux soumis à la volonté divine a valeur de vertu suprême dans son rapport avec la toute-puissance incompréhensible et inconnaissable. L'unique réalité durable s'avère que «Dieu seul est» selon sa métaphysique bien particulière. Humiliation de l'homme et de sa rationalité, mise en perspective du savoir humain et de la science, critique de la connaissance humaine par l'insuffisance des outils de ses sens et de sa raison et finalement l'aveu d'un perpétuel mouvement sans constante existence dans l'être vient compliquer davantage les mises en cause, voilà les principales parties de son Apologie. Son humanisme fonde de nouveaux rapports de l'homme avec le savoir, l'être, la Nature ou Dieu sans enfermer son esprit dans l'arbitraire d'un système ou utiliser une méthode autre que celle d'instaurer une problématique continue vis-à-vis de la condition humaine, corroborant ainsi un prélude au relativisme culturel et philosophique. Inspiré des sources mêmes de la pensée occidentale, Montaigne redécouvre la sagesse païenne de l'Antiquité, à partir de sa lecture des néo-stoïciens, des sceptiques, des pyrrhoniens et de l'observation du comportement humain. Il conclut à l'utopie de la raison et de la science à sortir l'homme de l'«humaine condition». Montaigne a réussi à extirper la philosophie des griffes de la théologie en proposant dans ses Essais une façon de philosopher et d'obtenir sa propre vérité. Le souverain bien de l'homme et de l'humanité ne serait-il pas son Vivre à propos, comme éthique ou sagesse de tous les temps.