Paleoenvironmental records provide ample information on the Late Quaternary climatic evolution. Due to the great diversity of continental mid-latitude environments the synthetic picture of the past mid-latitudinal climate changes is, however, far from being complete. Owing to its significant size and landlocked setting the Black Sea constitutes a perfect location to study patterns and mechanisms of climate change along the continental interior of Central and Eastern Europe and Asia Minor. Presently, the southern drainage area of the Black Sea is characterized by a Mediterranean-type climate while the northern drainage is under the influence of Central and Northern European climate. During the Last Glacial a decrease in the global sea level disconnected the Black Sea from the Mediterranean Sea transforming it into a giant closed lake. At that time atmospheric precipitation and related with it river run-off were the most important factors driving sediment supply and water chemistry of the Black ‘Lake’. Therefore studying properties of the Black Sea sediments provides important information on the interactions and development of the Mediterranean and Central and North European climate in the past. One significant outcome of my thesis is an improved chronostraphigraphical framework for the glacial lacustrine unit of the Black Sea sediment cores, which allowed to refine the environmental history of the Black Sea region and enabled a reliable correlation with data from other marine and terrestrial archives. Data gathered along a N-S transect presented on a common time scale revealed coherent changes in the basin and its surrounding. During the glacial, the southward-shifted Polar Front reduced moisture transport to the northern drainage of the Black Sea and let the southern drainage become dominant in freshwater and sediment supply into the basin. Changes in NW Anatolian precipitation reconstructed from the variability of the terrigenous input imply that during the glacial the regional rainfall variability was strongly influenced by Mediterranean sea surface temperatures and decreased in response to the cooling associated with the North Atlantic Heinrich Events H1 and H2. In contrast to regional precipitation changes, the hydrological properties of the Black Sea remained relatively stable under full glacial conditions. First significant modification in the freshwater/sediment sources reconstructed from changes in the sediment composition, lithology, and 18O of ostracods took place at around 16.4 cal ka BP, simultaneous to the early deglacial northward retreat of the oceanic and atmospheric polar fronts. Meltwater pulses, most probably derived from the disintegrating European ice sheets, changed the isotopic composition of the Black Sea and increased the supply from northern sediment sources. While these changes signalized a mitigation of the Northern European and Mediterranean climate, a decisive increase in local temperature was indicated only later at the transition from the Oldest Dryas to the Bølling around 14.6 cal ka BP. At that time the warming of the Black Sea surface initiated massive phytoplankton blooms, which in turn, induced the precipitation of inorganic carbonates. This biologically triggered process significantly changed the water chemistry and was recorded by simultaneous shifts in the elemental composition of ostracod shells and in the isotopic composition of the inorganically-precipitated carbonates. Starting with the B/A warming and continuing through the YD cold interval and the Early Holocene warming, the Black Sea temperature signal corresponds to the precipitation and temperature changes recorded in the wider Mediterranean region. Early Holocene conditions, similar to those of the Bølling/Allerød, were punctured by the marine inflow from the Mediterranean at ~ 9.3 cal ka BP, which terminated the lacustrine phase of the Black Sea and had a substantial impact on the chemical and physical properties of its water. / Aus Paläoumweltdaten lassen sich detaillierte Informationen über die spätquartäre Klimaentwicklung gewinnen. Für die kontinentalen mittleren Breiten ist das Gesamtbild der Klimaänderungen während dieses Zeitraumes aufgrund seiner Vielfältigkeit allerdings noch immer unvollständig. Eine ideale Loka-tion, das Muster und die Mechanismen der Klimaänderungen in Osteuropa und Kleinasien zu untersu-chen, ist das Schwarze Meer mit seiner bedeutenden Größe und seiner kontinentalen Lage. Gegenwärtig ist das südliche Einzugsgebiet des Schwarzen Meeres durch ein mediterranes Klima ge-prägt, während die nördlichen Regionen von zentral- bzw. nordeuropäischem Klima beeinflusst werden. Als im letzten Glazial der Meeresspiegel so stark sank, dass das Schwarze Meer vom Mittelmeer abge-trennt und zu einem großen, abflusslosen See wurde, waren der atmosphärische Niederschlag und der damit verbundene Abfluss die wesentlichen Steuerfaktoren für Sedimenteintrag und Wasserchemie des Schwarzen „Sees“. Deshalb liefert die Untersuchung der Sedimente des Schwarzen Meeres wichtige Informationen über die früheren Zusammenhänge sowie die Entwicklung von mediterranem und zentral- bzw. nordeuropäischem Klima. Das bedeutsamste Ergebnis meiner Doktorarbeit ist ein verbessertes Altersmodell für Sedimentkerne aus dem westlichen Schwarzen Meer; dieses erlaubt eine genauere Rekonstruktion der Entwicklungsge-schichte dieses Binnenmeeres und seiner Umgebung und ermöglicht einen fundierten Vergleich mit an-deren marinen und terrestrischen Archiven. Daten, die entlang eines N-S Transektes im westlichen Be-reich des Schwarzen Meeres erfasst wurden und auf einer gemeinsamen Zeitskala dargestellt werden, lassen die folgenden zusammenhängenden Entwicklungen im Becken und seiner Umgebung erkennen: Während des Glazials war der Feuchtigkeitstransport zum nördlichen Einzugsgebiet des Schwarzen Meeres aufgrund der südwärts verlagerten Polarfront vermindert, so dass Süßwasser und Sedimente vor-rangig aus dem südlichen Einzugsgebiet in das Becken gelangten. Die Rekonstruktion von Nieder-schlagsänderungen mit Hilfe von Schwankungen des terrigenen Eintrags zeigt, dass der regionale Nie-derschlag im Glazial stark von den Wasseroberflächentemperaturen des Mittelmeeres beeinflusst wurde und als Folge der Abkühlung während der nordatlantischen Heinrich-Ereignisse H1 und H2 abnahm. Im Gegensatz dazu blieb das Schwarze Meer während des Hochglazials hydrologisch relativ stabil. Die Sedimentzusammensetzung, Lithologie und δ18O-Werte von Ostracoden zeigen, dass erste signifi-kante Änderungen im Frischwasser- und Sedimenteintrag zeitgleich mit dem frühglazialen nordwärtigen Rückzug der ozeanischen und atmosphärischen Polarfronten um 16.4 cal ka BP auftraten. Der Schmelz-wassereintrag abschmelzender europäischer Eisflächen veränderte die Isotopenzusammensetzung des Wassers und erhöhte die Sedimentzufuhr aus den nördlichen Quellen. Während diese Änderungen auf ein bereits milderes Klima in Nordeuropa und im Mittelmeerraum hin-deuten, zeigt sich ein Anstieg der lokalen Temperaturen erst während des Übergangs von der Älteren Dryas zum Bølling/Allerød um etwa 14.6 cal. ka BP. Zu diesem Zeitpunkt führte ein wahrscheinlicher Anstieg der Wasseroberflächentemperaturen im Schwarzen Meer zu einem massiven Phytoplankton-wachstum, welcher die Ausfällung anorganischen Karbonats zur Folge hatte. Dieser biologisch ausgelös-te Prozess veränderte maßgeblich die Wasserchemie und spiegelt sich in simultanen Veränderungen der Elementzusammensetzung von Ostracoden und der Isotopenzusammensetzung von anorganisch ausge-fälltem Karbonat wieder. Beginnend mit dem Bølling/Allerød, durch die Jüngere Dryas Kälteperiode und die frühholozäne Erwärmung hindurch, deckt sich das Temperatursignal des Schwarzen Meeres mit den Niederschlags- und Temperaturänderungen des weiteren Mittelmeerraumes. Das Frühholozän war, ähnlich wie das Bølling/Allerød, durch das Einströmen salzhaltigen Meerwassers aus dem Mittelmeer gekennzeichnet (~9.5 cal. ka BP), welches die lakustrine Phase des Schwarzen Mee-res beendete und einen erheblichen Einfluss auf seine chemischen und physikalischen Wassereigen-schaften ausübte.

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Mientras que en nuestro país las investigaciones arqueológicas, históricas y paleoambientales en los espacios de alta montaña destacan por su escasez, numerosos estudios europeos han demostrando la existencia de una intensa ocupación y explotación humana desde la Prehistoria a nuestros días. Los estudios realizados en sectores pirenaicos han señalado que dicha gestión humana se caracterizó por una destacada variabilidad regional en términos de prácticas humanas y modos de ocupación durante el Holoceno. Sin embargo, el estudio integrado arqueológico y paleoambiental de la gestión antrópica de sectores altimontanos pirenaicos a escala microregional ha sido realizada de manera muy puntual y es actualmente un ámbito de estudio poco explorado. La presente Tesis doctoral se inscribe en un proyecto de investigación interdisciplinar en el campo de la Arqueología del Paisaje desarrollado en el valle del Madriu-Perafita-Claror (VMPC, Andorra), declarado Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la UNESCO en el 2004. Este trabajo pretende reconstruir la gestión humana y la configuración paisajística de los paisajes culturales pirenaicos durante el Holoceno, tomando como escenario de estudio los sectores altimontanos del valle del Madriu-Perafita-Claror y valorando aquellos factores de carácter socio-cultural y/o climático-ambiental que han contribuido a la culturización de estos espacios y a su modelado paisajístico. Asimismo se pretende caracterizar los diferentes usos del suelo altimontanos, determinar el impacto paisajístico de los mismos y su papel en la configuración paisajística del valle a nivel microregional.Para cumplir estos objetivos se ha llevado a cabo un estudio paleoambiental multi-proxy a alta resolución temporal y espacial que combina el análisis del polen en secuencias naturales con otros indicadores que proporcionan información de carácter local, como estomas, microfósiles no polínicos (NPPs) o partículas carbonosas. Siguiendo una estrategia microregional, se han estudiado dos lagos y dos turberas de reducido tamaño situadas a diferentes altitudes y en diferentes sectores del valle del Madriu situados entre 2.100 y 2.530 m. Los resultados paleoambientales se han comparado con aquellos obtenidos en otras dos turberas situadas en el valle del Madriu y en el valle de Perafita-Claror (Miras et al. 2007; Miras et al. en prensa) con el fin de detectar posibles variabilidades en la gestión y estructuración paisajística de carácter "intra-valle" (en los diferentes sectores del valle del Madriu) e "inter-valle" (entre los valles del Madriu y de Perafita-Claror"). Finalmente, estos resultados han sido integrados con la información arqueológica obtenida en el marco del proyecto interdisciplinar (Orengo 2007; Palet et al. 2007), siendo así posible poner de manifiesto la complejidad de la gestión humana altimontana a lo largo del tiempo en este sector pirenaico.Los resultados de este trabajo destacan la existencia en el VMPC de diferentes fases de gestión humana y variabilidad paisajística de carácter microregional "intra-valle" e "inter-valle" desde el Neolítico inicial al Bronce inicial y desde el periodo romano a época contemporánea. Este estudio demuestra que la variabilidad paisajística no se relaciona necesariamente con parámetros topográficos o climáticos, destacando el papel de los parámetros sociales, económicos y culturales en la estructuración de la gestión del medio y la configuración del paisaje de alta montaña desde la Prehistoria. Este estudio, además, pone de manifiesto que los espacios de alta montaña son paisajes culturales, resultado de la interacción a lo largo del tiempo de una gestión humana diversificada en la que no sólo destaca el pastoreo sino también otras actividades relacionadas con la explotación forestal y minero-metalúrgica (explotación de resina, carboneo, metalurgia). Finalmente, destaca el valor de los estudios integrados paleoambientales multi-proxy y arqueológicos desarrollados a una escala microregional como una estrategia de estudio adecuada para el análisis de la gestión humana y el cambio paisajístico en sectores de montaña durante el Holoceno.Palabras clave: paisajes culturales, reconstrucción del paisaje, variabilidad paisajística microregional, usos del suelo altimontanos, estudio multi-proxy, polen, alta montaña, arqueología del paisaje, Pirineos orientales, Holoceno / Previous research acknowledges the ancient and complex land-use history of European mountainous areas, which are characterised by a remarkable regional variability in terms of human practices and patterns of occupation during the Holocene. However, the combined palaeoenvironmental and archaeological study of highland human management at a microregional scale remains a largely unexplored research field, especially in the Pyrenees. This PhD project was performed as a part of an integrated palaeoenvironmental and archaeological research program which aims to understand the long-term shaping of the Madriu-Perafita-Claror valley (MPCV, Andorra), a high mountain cultural landscape included in 2004 in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Main objectives of this study are, firstly, to reconstruct human management and landscape shaping of high altitudinal Pyrenean spaces along the Holocene assessing those environmental and/or human factors involved, and secondly, to reconstruct microregional land-use and landscape variability in the shaping of highland spaces.To accomplish these objectives a high temporal resolution palaeoenvironmental study which combines pollen with other biological proxies providing more local information such as stomata, non-pollen palynomorphs (NPPs), and macrocharcoal charred particles was carried out in the upper subalpine and alpine belts of the MPCV following a fine spatial-resolution strategy. Four nearby small peat and lake basins were studied at different altitudes and landscape settings of the main Madriu valley. Palaeoenvironmental results were afterwards compared with those of two other peat sequences located at the Madriu and the Perafita valley (Miras et al. 2007; Miras et al. in press) in order to detect small-scale land-use variability at both intra-valley (within the Madriu valley) and inter-valley (between Madriu and Perafita valley) scales. Palaeoecological results were further integrated with archaeological local data, and together underline the marked complexity of high mountain land-use system over the Holocene period. Results drawn from this study stress the existence in the MPCV of different phases of microregional land-use and landscape variability at both intra-valley and inter-valley scales from the early Neolithic to the early Bronze Age and from the Roman Period to the Modern Era. The study show that landscape variability is not necessarily connected to topographic or climatic parameters, and underline the role of social, economical and cultural parameters in the land-use organisation and the landscape shaping of high mountain spaces since Prehistory. This study depicts highlands as cultural landscapes resulting from the long-term interaction of a diversified rage of land-uses, comprising grazing but also other activities related with woodland exploitation. Finally it demonstrates the value of combined palaeoenvironmental multi-proxy records and archaeological studies carried out at a microregional scale in the study of human mountain management and landscape change during the Holocene.Keywords: cultural landscapes, landscape change, microregional landscape variability, high-mountain land-use, multi-proxy study, pollen, high mountain, landscape archaeology, eastern Pyrenees, Holocene / Previous research acknowledges the ancient and complex land-use history of European mountainous areas, which are characterised by a remarkable regional variability in terms of human practices and patterns of occupation during the Holocene. However, the combined palaeoenvironmental and archaeological study of highland human management at a microregional scale remains a largely unexplored research field, especially in the Pyrenees. This PhD project was performed as a part of an integrated palaeoenvironmental and archaeological research program which aims to understand the long-term shaping of the Madriu-Perafita-Claror valley (MPCV, Andorra), a high mountain cultural landscape included in 2004 in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Main objectives of this study are, firstly, to reconstruct human management and landscape shaping of high altitudinal Pyrenean spaces along the Holocene assessing those environmental and/or human factors involved, and secondly, to reconstruct microregional land-use and landscape variability in the shaping of highland spaces.To accomplish these objectives a high temporal resolution palaeoenvironmental study which combines pollen with other biological proxies providing more local information such as stomata, non-pollen palynomorphs (NPPs), and macrocharcoal charred particles was carried out in the upper subalpine and alpine belts of the MPCV following a fine spatial-resolution strategy. Four nearby small peat and lake basins were studied at different altitudes and landscape settings of the main Madriu valley. Palaeoenvironmental results were afterwards compared with those of two other peat sequences located at the Madriu and the Perafita valley (Miras et al. 2007; Miras et al. in press) in order to detect small-scale land-use variability at both intra-valley (within the Madriu valley) and inter-valley (between Madriu and Perafita valley) scales. Palaeoecological results were further integrated with archaeological local data, and together underline the marked complexity of high mountain land-use system over the Holocene period. Results drawn from this study stress the existence in the MPCV of different phases of microregional land-use and landscape variability at both intra-valley and inter-valley scales from the early Neolithic to the early Bronze Age and from the Roman Period to the Modern Era. The study show that landscape variability is not necessarily connected to topographic or climatic parameters, and underline the role of social, economical and cultural parameters in the land-use organisation and the landscape shaping of high mountain spaces since Prehistory. This study depicts highlands as cultural landscapes resulting from the long-term interaction of a diversified rage of land-uses, comprising grazing but also other activities related with woodland exploitation. Finally it demonstrates the value of combined palaeoenvironmental multi-proxy records and archaeological studies carried out at a microregional scale in the study of human mountain management and landscape change during the Holocene.Keywords: cultural landscapes, landscape change, microregional landscape variability, high-mountain land-use, multi-proxy study, pollen, high mountain, landscape archaeology, eastern Pyrenees, Holocene

The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the possibility of paleoentomology as a proxy in garden archaeology research. Garden contexts can prove difficult to identify and interpret due to the many changes the contexts go through during their activity period. Mixing of materials, harvesting and cultivation of many different plants will affect the environmental data that is retrieved from them and thus our interpretation of horticulture. This essay looks at the contexts and materials involved in the gardening process; irrigation sources, fertilizer, garden plant macrofossils and modern ecological insect and host plant relationships. The goal is to suggest a conceptual indicator group of insect and plant species that could aid in the identification of garden context and the in situ growth of relic plants. Paleoentomological information from the relating contexts (middens, composts, wells etc.) and other indicator groups have been included along with the ecological data in order to get a more complex picture over the garden contexts and their varying content. For instance, many of the plants found in garden soils are recorded as host plants to several insect species. This paper argues that investigation of these relationships can aid garden archaeology and further our understanding of herbivorous insects’ and associated species’ relationships to plant domestication in pre-history.

Ancient harbour sediment archives can provide long-term records of changes in coastal palaeoenvironments, settlement history, and anthropogenic impacts on coastal systems. In this study, multi-proxy geoarchaeological investigations were conducted at two long-occupied coastal archaeological sites (Liman Tepe-Clazomenae, western Anatolia, Turkey; Lechaion, northeast Peloponnese, Greece) to document coastal palaeoenvironmental change and harbour basin evolution. Multi-proxy core analyses (micropalaeontology, sedimentary facies) were integrated with geophysical mapping and micro-XRF core scanning (chemofacies) to investigate harbour sediment archives and to reconstruct coastal palaeoenvironments. At Liman Tepe-Clazomenae, the Neolithic to Early Bronze Age (ca. 6700-3000 BCE) coastal palaeogeography was reconstructed using a large subsurface database (>20 cores, ~600-line km geophysical surveys) to determine palaeoshoreline positions and potential locations of prehistoric proto-harbour basins. Geophysical mapping revealed a submerged palaeolandscape with relict river channels and shorelines recording inundation of a middle Neolithic coastal plain. A transgressive systems tract was identified by marine foreshore and shoreface deposits overlying paleosol and lagoonal sediments. Shoreline positions were estimated by back-strip analysis of the de-compacted sediment thickness from the marine transgressive surface. During the middle Neolithic (ca. 6700 BCE) the shoreline was >500 m seaward of the modern shore and transgressed to its maximum extent (~1 km inland) during the Chalcolithic (ca. 4000 BCE). After 4000 BCE, sea level decelerated and the coastline prograded under a high-stand systems tract by barrier accretion. The transition from a Late Bronze Age (LBA) proto-harbour to Iron Age semi-enclosed harbour basin was recorded by shifts in geochemical proxies (Ti/Ca, Si, Br), foraminifera, and sedimentary facies. Shifts in Ti/Ca record potential signals of land clearance and evidence for a 300-year LBA drought period (“Greek Dark Age”). Geophysical mapping of Clazomenae’s Archaic (ca. 7th-6th c. BCE) harbour basin revealed two rubble-constructed breakwater structures and a submerged headland separating east and west basins. Linear magnetic anomalies within the eastern mole indicate a buried (LBA?) pier or breakwater within the rubble mass. At Lechaion, a multi-proxy analysis was conducted on seven cores to determine the timing and causes of the Roman harbour decline and abandonment. Coring identified a basin-wide paraconformity surface separating harbour sediments and overlying marl deposits, which records a rapid transition from a marine-estuarine to restricted evaporitic lake environment. Rapid basin restriction was indicated by a decrease in terrigenous elements (Si, Ti, K, Fe), increased Sr and δ18O, and a shift from marine-estuarine to marsh-freshwater taxa. The event records the 6th c. CE tectonic uplift and destruction of the harbour basin, linked with uplift on the nearby Perachora Peninsula (~1.1 m) during destructive earthquakes in 524 and 551/552 CE. No evidence was found for tsunami events proposed in previous work. This study has documented the development, evolution, and abandonment of harbour basins on two tectonically active coastlines with complex relative sea level histories. Palaeogeographic mapping at Liman Tepe has identified a drowned palaeolandscape with areas of high archaeological potential for submerged prehistoric sites and proto-harbour anchorage areas. At Lechaion, multi-proxy analysis has resolved a long-standing debate, demonstrating that the harbour basin decline in the 6th c. CE was caused by coastal tectonic uplift and rapid basin restriction. / Dissertation / Doctor of Science (PhD)

The presence of the sea ice diatom biomarker IP25 in Arctic marine sediments has been used in previous studies as a proxy for past spring sea ice occurrence and as an indicator of wider palaeoenvironmental conditions for different regions of the Arctic over various timescales. The current study describes a number of analytical and palaeoceanographic developments of the IP25 sea ice biomarker. First, IP25 was extracted and purified from Arctic marine sediments. This enabled the structure of IP25 to be confirmed and enabled instrumental (GC-MS) calibrations to be carried out so that quantitative measurements could be performed with greater accuracy. Second, palaeo sea ice reconstructions based on IP25 and other biomarkers were carried out for a suite of sub-Arctic areas within the Greenland, Norwegian and Barents Seas, each of which represent contrasting oceanographic and environmental settings. Further, an evaluation of some combined biomarker approaches (e.g. the PIP25 and DIP25 indices) for quantifying and/or refining definitions of sea ice conditions was carried out. Temporally, particular emphasis was placed on the characterisation of sea ice conditions during the Younger Dryas and the Holocene. Some comparisons with other proxies (e.g. foraminifera, IRD) were also made. A study of a sediment core from Andfjorden (69.16˚N, 16.25˚E), northern Norway, provided unequivocal evidence for the occurrence of seasonal sea ice conditions during the Younger Dryas. The onset (ca. 12.9 cal. kyr BP) and end (ca. 11.5 cal. kyr BP) of this stadial were especially clear in this location, while in a study from the Kveithola Trough (74.52˚N, 16.29˚E), western Barents Sea, these transitions were less apparent. This was attributed to the presence of colder surface waters and the occurrence of seasonal sea ice both before and after this stadial at higher latitudes. Some regional differences regarding the severity of the sea ice conditions were also observed, although an overall general picture was proposed, with more severe sea ice conditions during the early-mid Younger Dryas and less sea ice observed during the late Younger Dryas. A shift in the climate towards ice-free conditions was recorded in northern Norway during the early Holocene (ca. 11.5 – 7.2 cal. kyr BP). Milder conditions were also observed during the Holocene in the western Barents Sea, with three main climate periods observed. During the early Holocene (ca. 11.7 – 9.5 cal. kyr BP), the position of the spring ice edge was close to the study area which resulted in high productivity during summers. During the mid-late Holocene (ca. 9.5 – 1.6 cal. kyr BP), sea ice was mainly absent due to an increased influence of Atlantic waters and northward movement of the Polar Front. During the last ca. 1.6 cal. kyr BP, sea ice conditions were similar to those of the present day. In addition to the outcomes obtained from the Norwegian-Barents Sea region, comparison of biomarker and other proxy data from 3 short cores from Kangerdlugssuaq Trough (Denmark Strait/SE Greenland) with historical climate observations allowed the development of a model of sea ice conditions which was then tested for longer time-scales. It is suggested that the IP25 in sediments from this region is likely derived from drift ice carried from the Arctic Ocean via the East Greenland Current and that two main sea surface scenarios have existed over the last ca. 150 yr. From ca. AD 1850 – 1910, near perennial sea ice conditions resulted in very low primary productivity, while from ca. AD 1910 – 1986, local sea ice conditions were less severe with increased drift ice and enhanced primary productivity. This two-component model was subsequently developed to accommodate different sea surface conditions that existed during the retreat of the Greenland Ice Sheet during the deglaciation (ca. 16.3 – 10.9 cal. kyr BP).