The sustainability of South Africa municipal water services provision is being challenged by the desire of government to extend high quality services from a relatively small portion of the population to the whole. Evidence of failures in delivery are mounting and many reasons for this have been identified, including a lack of political will at local government levels, low budget priority, insufficient capital, lack of capacity and skill and flawed tariff and accounting structures. This study generates new perspectives by surveying selected but representative, South African municipalities in their capacities as water service authorities (WSAs) on a range of financial sustainability issues – including cost burden on users, cross sub-subsidisation and cost calculations to set tariffs. The study is part of a wider investigation into the setting of tariffs that cover costs and satisfy demand, funded and advised by the Water Research Commission (WRC). The conclusions and recommendations of WRC Project K3/2087 (Hosking, 2011b) are to address: 1. The choice of water service provider, including the private utility option; 2. Market vulnerabilities in water service provision under alternate models of supply; 3. The determination and realisation of full cost recovery; 4. Demand responsiveness/sensitivity of local government supply; 5. The increasing block tariff (IBT) tariff structure; and 6. Abuse of dominance in the market process. Given the limited perspective (i.e. a focus on WSAs), some important national water sustainability issues are given less prominence, e.g. raw water availability and national government capacity to subsidise water service delivery. The key water service sustainability elements on which attention was focused in this study are: • Backlogs in the water service coverage and infrastructure rehabilitation and maintenance. • Standard of water service indicators. • Relative importance of the provision of water services in water service authorities’ strategy and implementation (including budget and risk). • Adequacy of skills to provide a sustainable water service. • Budgeting and planning for the sustainability of the water service. • Adequacy of the costing and tariff setting nexus, with particular attention paid to method and principle. A survey was used to elicit information from selected municipalities (Chapter Four). The municipalities which formed part of the sample and were surveyed were: 1. Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan Municipality; 2. Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality; 3. eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality; 4. Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality; 5. Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality; 6. George Municipality; 7. uMhlathuze (Richards Bay) Municipality; 8. Steve Tshwete (Middleburg) Municipality; 9. Kouga Municipality; 10. Sol Plaatjie (Kimberley) Municipality; 11. Polokwane Municipality; 12. Stellenbosch Municipality; 13. Overstrand Municipality; 14. Midvaal Municipality; and 15. Amathole District Municipality.

In recent years South Africa has experienced numerous service delivery protests. These protests are a result of the lack of delivery of basic services such as water and sanitation (amongst others). To address this, local governments have taken part in benchmarking initiatives (National Benchmarking Initiative, Municipal Benchmarking Initiative) and regulation programmes (BlueDrop,GreenDrop) in an effort to improve the quality of potable water and sanitation services. The latter of these focuses on the quality of the water services delivered and neither focus on the efficiency with which this delivery is achieved. This study uses both nonparametric (data envelopment analysis) aswell as parametric (stochastic frontier) methods to assess the efficiency of water service provision in South Africa over a six year period from 2005 to 2010. Subsequently, the method which is most suited for use in the South African context is proposed. In addition, this study demonstrates how these methods can be used to determine the effectiveness of benchmarking initiatives, namely the National Benchmarking Initiative, in improving the efficiency of water service provision. Furthermore, additional insight into the selection ofm in them out of n bootstrap procedure for efficiency evaluations is established through a simulation study. The inclusion of efficiency evaluations into South African benchmarking initiatives provides new and important insight into the standard of water service delivery. As such, the techniques used in this study illustrate how efficiency analysis can enhance benchmarking initiatives in South Africa.

Thesis (M.Dev.) --University of Limpopo, 2012 / The aim of the envisaged study is to investigate the water supply services in Lenyenye Township, in Greater Tzaneen Municipality and to derive suggestions and recommendations for improvement based on the objectives decomposed into the following: To review the extent and the magnitude of Water Supply problems and to identify, analyze the underlying causes of the water supply problems because the basic infrastructure provision of water supply is very poor and dismal across the area. Water serves as a basic need to which everybody has the right to access, be it for consumption or irrigation this service is, unfortunately, disrupted by many factors. The findings in the study for poor water supply emanate from many common causal factors such as management skills, technical challenges and illegal connections. Only two methods were employed to collect data in the study. Data collection was done by using the questionnaire and the interview methods and the interview involved direct personal contact with the participants who answered questions. A survey questionnaire was used to obtain data pertaining to water supply services from the representatives of water supply institutions. Recommendations in the study are based on the findings such as prioritization of effective water supply for Lenyenye township, community consultation and participation, addressing capacity constrains in the Municipality such as human resources, water service infrastructure, and skills development.

Abstract available in attached PDF document. / Thesis (MBA)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2006.

This was a study of the devolution of water and sanitation management functions from the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry and Rand Water Board to Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality. This affects the functions and the infrastructure that goes with it. This exercise is the fulfilment of the provisions of Water Services Act that empowers municipalities to become Water Services Authorities and where capacity exists to also become Water Services Providers. It was found that though constitutionally, water and sanitation functions resort under municipalities, in the area of study, the Tshwane municipality did not directly deliver these functions. This happened due to the fact that Tshwane did not have human capacity to deal with the functions, they provided the funding as a subsidy to Rand Water Board who in turn provided financial support to Odi Retail Water that is currently responsible for water and sanitation management as a subsidiary to Rand Water Board. The following are recommendations derived from the findings: That the political activities be raised in the areas to encourage people to pay for their services and take responsibility for meter reading on their own like it is happening in Denmark. In Denmark each household reads meters for both water and electricity personally and submits the readings to the municipality for billing. As a result the municipality did not employ special meter readers and by so doing they safe on salaries. That greater resource allocation is made to cover the shortfalls that were experienced due to lack of management capacity and other resources that would enable Tshwane municipality to run the functions on their own. That capacity building and support for professionals be streamlined on the current Odi Retail Water staff for future absorption by municipality. 4. That promotion of community-based development be continued to encourage community ownership on water management functions. This could be done through the formation of community water associations. While community-based approaches are now accepted as the norm, the necessary: capacity to support them in most cases does not generally exist at the higher levels (national, district and local) and Tshwane needs to look at this. Communities currently remain uninterested in taking part in wider water management for a number of reasons, including lack of ownership or control over decisions; lack of real power to make allocation and use decisions; high transaction costs of involvement; and poorly developed frameworks by which the views of large communities can be represented at stakeholder fora. Therefore, Tshwane must make sure that community's interest is supported in all respect. If the municipality cannot handle these functions on its own, then privatisation should be considered for efficient and effective water and sanitation management and provision. / Thesis (MBA) North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2002

Thesis (MTech (Public Management))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2009 / Access to basic water and sanitation services in South Africa is considered a basic human right, and constitutionally, local government is responsible for the provision thereof. However, in the informal settlements in towns and cities, residents continue to be exposed to environmental health risks that result from poor and inadequate basic sanitation provision. Municipalities are under pressure to address the sanitation backlog according to the national target that is based on the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). The provision of infrastructure alone does not account for the provision of an improved, safer and more hygienic environment for its users. A badly managed sanitation facility is an environmental health risk, and it encourages inappropriate and unsafe sanitation practice. Municipalities cannot claim to meet the sanitation backlog targets unless appropriate and effective management systems are in place to operate and maintain the basic sanitation facilities provided. Through the Integrated Development Plan (IDP) process, local government is encouraged to develop partnerships to promote economic development and job creation, particularly in areas of extreme poverty and high unemployment through the delivery of services. Public participation, social learning, empowerment and sustainability are the key components of the people-centred development approach that currently guides the delivery of municipal services South Africa (Davids,I. 2005). The White Paper on Local Government advocates municipalities to work with communities to find sustainable ways to meet their needs through an approach that is driven by formulating linkages between development, service delivery and local citizen participation (Mogale, T. 2005:219). It is also argued that the only way to effectively link poverty reduction strategies and improved service delivery is through the formation of partnerships that are based on meaningful participation (Mogale, T. 2003). Public participation also allows for an opportunity for increased community buy-in and support that is essential for the sustainable delivery of services to informal settlements so as to reduce incidents of misuse and vandalism. Communication and collaboration across municipal departments is also required, as sanitation service delivery in its broad definition, falls across the Water Services, Health and Solid Waste Departments. Hence the need for an integrated and inclusive approach to planning is required. Using a participatory action research (PAR) process, this study proposes to investigate whether there are local community-based opportunities for the procurement of some of the operation and maintenance tasks for the recently refurbished public ablution blocks in an informal settlement within the City of Cape Town. Public ablution blocks are one of the sanitation technology options available for the provision of shared basic sanitation services provided to informal settlements within the City of Cape Town. The research is divided into three stages. The first two stages serve as the building blocks for the third stage of the research. The objectives are to obtain an improved understanding of the “local knowledge” at community level, to obtain an understanding of the operation and maintenance activities in informal settlements currently being undertaken by City of Cape Town, and to initiate contacts and develop relationships with key stakeholders for their participation in the focus group discussions in the third stage. The third stage of the research proposes to adopt a participatory approach involving key stakeholders to identify the opportunities and make recommendations to the City of Cape Town to consider for the development of an operational plan for the operation and maintenance of the Khayelitsha Ablution Blocks.

M.Ing. / An investigation was conducted on on-site leakage in selected suburbs of Johannesburg to determine the average leakage flow rate of water lost per property, as well as the distribution patterns of leakage flow rates for two categories of properties: Residential (single domestic houses on stands) and Other (non-domestic and large domestic users). The incentive of this research project, funded by the Water Research Commission (WRC) of South Africa, was to provide figures and to gain insight into the magnitude of water lost at the consumer level, also defined as "on-site leakage". Little was published on on-site losses compared to water losses in municipal distribution systems. The key information for this study was collected through physical inspection of a group of randomly selected properties and by means of measurements taken from municipal water meters used for billing purpose. The project was assisted by Johannesburg Water (Pty) Ltd who provided a list of 233 properties having water meters of less than five years old. These properties were chosen at random and included properties whose meters were replaced due to meter failure or customer complaints. The results of the research show that overall 64 % of investigated properties had measurable on-site leakage at an average rate of 22.9 I/h per property, equivalent to a monthly volume loss of 16.5 kl per property. The median rate was 5.7 I/h per property, translated into a volume loss of 4.1 kl/month per property. An analysis of the data revealed that the general extreme value distribution and its derivatives (Frechet, Wakeby, Exponential and Gamma) provide good descriptions of the distribution of on-site leakage rates. The apparent losses resulting from metering errors were also estimated. The results of this study should be of interest to water engineers and to decision-makers involved in water demand management. It could form a basis for further investigation in the analysis of on-site leakage on a large scale in South Africa by systematically monitoring all segregated categories of users throughout different cities and towns in South Africa.

A project report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Engineerrng, / As has happened throughout the world. environmental and water quality problems related to developing urban and industrial areas and associated accumulation of waste in built-up areas were the main factors in contributing to sanitary awareness in South Africa. The dwindling water resources and persistent deterioration of water quality, more severely in urban areas, necessitates the review the current practice of storm water management in South Africa. Reliable stormwater drainage models evaluating both the water quantity and quality could be essential in confronting the prevailing pollution problems. The objective of this project was conceived to be the development of a system for the simulation of water quality in urban watercourses, A personal computer compatible model for joint transportation of hydrograph and pollutographs in open channels was developed. The model comprises an operational data handling facility, a user friendly and interactive interface. The study revealed that: Urban and Industrial development results in complication of the urban water system. • Single objectivity approaches in management of urban watercourses are outdated . .. The proposed model is capable of simultaneously routing flood and pollutant condiment waves in open channels. Understanding of aspects of the water quality in urban watercourse can be greatly enhanced by the proposed model. The following recommendations were henceforth made: • Detailed study of the nature. quantity and sources of pollutants in the urban water system. .. Sophisticated (dynamic wave. supercritical flow, complicated ..................... hydrodynamic model snould be considered, • Biological and, chemical process in the urban watercourse be incorporated. • Linking of the water quality model to the storm water drainage model, / Andrew Chakane 2018

M.A. (Development Studies) / This study examines water service provision models in KwaZulu-Natal and asks to what extent the intention behind the implementation of a specific model of water service provision correlates with residents’ experiences of the service delivery model that is implemented within their township? Using a case study method this question was examined in two poor communities in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa that were characterised by different models of water service delivery. In the first case, namely Kwadukuza, municipal service provision is the operating model, whilst in the second case, Etete, a Public-Private Partnership governs water service delivery. In examining the different models of water service delivery in the two communities and how they are perceived and experienced by stakeholders, this research primarily expands on existing literature on water service provision within South Africa. It furthermore contributes to broader discussions on decentralisation and citizen participation, whilst building on scholarly debates on water privatisation and partnerships in the context of townships in South Africa. The study begins with a consideration of relevant literature, examining the growing impetus of decentralisation globally, as well as the concurrent emergence of neoliberal thinking and New Public Management strategies. Thereafter, debates on water privatisation are explored, before moving on to a consideration of the policy and practice of water provision in the South African context. At this juncture, the study draws on in-depth interviews as it considers the two models of water service provision within the Ilembe District Municipality – the factors that influenced their implementation and, thereafter, the relationships between and experiences of stakeholders (both implementers and beneficiaries alike) of the service delivery model that operates within their municipality. The study submits that the proposed benefits of decentralisation in the South African context are questionable, specifically as they relate to the delivery of services to the poorest of the poor. It is argued that this is owing considerably to inadequacies at the level of local government. In this respect, it is suggested that existing participatory mechanisms are falling short of the mark. In light of this, the study advances the manifold advantages of multiple stakeholders and partnership arrangements for service delivery models in the South African context. At its core, the study highlights residents’ experiences of water service delivery into their townships in an attempt to measure these against other reported experiences.

Service delivery is the provision of basic services to the community by Local Government (LG). The Water Services Act 108 of 1997 states that everyone should have rights to access water and sanitation. It further states that the level of service it provides its consumers, however, is dependent on a number of factors as per clause 11 (2) (a) which articulates that every water services authority has a duty to all consumers or potential consumers in its area of jurisdiction to progressively ensure sufficient, affordable, economical and sustainable access to water services. Craythorne (2006:170) argued that a municipality may, in accordance with a policy framework it has adopted, establish a part of the municipal area as an internal municipal service district to facilitate the provision of a municipal service in that area. Owing to the vastness of the district, many rural communities and the grant dependency of the municipality, the Amathole District Municipality (ADM) is challenged in providing safe potable water to all and is providing different levels of this service to different communities, based on available water resources, cost of supply and the ability to recover costs. In this regard the ADM provides a ―Basic level of service‖ to its rural communities in line with the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) National Guidelines of 25 litres per person per day. This study undertook to probe the determinants of effective basic service delivery at Amathole District Municipality. Water provision function is still a challenge to District Municipalities (DMs) due to various impediments confronted by the DMs when rendering basic services. From the literature study and information gathered from the respondents in this research it became evident that basic service delivery is a key to the development of local communities. In this regard it is pertinent that the District Municipality in question devises means that will mitigate the identified challenges in order to provide services to expectant communities. Self administered questionnaires were used as a method of collecting data from the respondents. In this study a qualitative method was used to analyse the data collected from the respondents. Based on the information gathered from the respondents the researcher made findings and formulated recommendations.