Cette thèse porte sur le rôle de l’espace dans l’organisation et dans la dynamique des communautés écologiques multi-espèces. Deux carences peuvent être identifiées dans les études théoriques actuelles portant sur la dimension spatiale des communautés écologiques : l’insuffisance de modèles multi-espèces représentant la dimension spatiale explicitement, et le manque d’attention portée aux interactions positives, tel le mutualisme, en dépit de la reconnaissance de leur ubiquité dans les systèmes écologiques. Cette thèse explore cette problématique propre à l’écologie des communautés, en utilisant une approche théorique s’inspirant de la théorie des systèmes complexes et de la mécanique statistique. Selon cette approche, les communautés d’espèces sont considérées comme des systèmes complexes dont les propriétés globales émergent des interactions locales entre les organismes qui les composent, et des interactions locales entre ces organismes et leur environnement. Le premier objectif de cette thèse est de développer un modèle de métacommunauté multi-espèces, explicitement spatial, orienté à l’échelle des individus et basé sur un réseau d’interactions interspécifiques générales comprenant à la fois des interactions d’exploitation, de compétition et de mutualisme. Dans ce modèle, les communautés locales sont formées par un processus d’assemblage des espèces à partir d’un réservoir régional. La croissance des populations est restreinte par une capacité limite et leur dynamique évolue suivant des mécanismes simples de reproduction et de dispersion des individus. Ces mécanismes sont dépendants des conditions biotiques et abiotiques des communautés locales et leur effet varie en fonction des espèces, du temps et de l’espace. Dans un deuxième temps, cette thèse a pour objectif de déterminer l’impact d’une connectivité spatiale croissante sur la dynamique spatiotemporelle et sur les propriétés structurelles et fonctionnelles de cette métacommunauté. Plus précisément, nous évaluons différentes propriétés des communautés en fonction du niveau de dispersion des espèces : i) la similarité dans la composition des communautés locales et ses patrons de corrélations spatiales; ii) la biodiversité locale et régionale, et la distribution locale de l’abondance des espèces; iii) la biomasse, la productivité et la stabilité dynamique aux échelles locale et régionale; et iv) la structure locale des interactions entre les espèces. Ces propriétés sont examinées selon deux schémas spatiaux. D’abord nous employons un environnement homogène et ensuite nous employons un environnement hétérogène où la capacité limite des communautés locales évoluent suivant un gradient. De façon générale, nos résultats révèlent que les communautés écologiques spatialement distribuées sont extrêmement sensibles aux modes et aux niveaux de dispersion des organismes. Leur dynamique spatiotemporelle et leurs propriétés structurelles et fonctionnelles peuvent subir des changements profonds sous forme de transitions significatives suivant une faible variation du niveau de dispersion. Ces changements apparaissent aussi par l’émergence de patrons spatiotemporels dans la distribution spatiale des populations qui sont typiques des transitions de phases observées généralement dans les systèmes physiques. La dynamique de la métacommunauté présente deux régimes. Dans le premier régime, correspondant aux niveaux faibles de dispersion des espèces, la dynamique d’assemblage favorise l’émergence de communautés stables, peu diverses et formées d’espèces abondantes et fortement mutualistes. La métacommunauté possède une forte diversité régionale puisque les communautés locales sont faiblement connectées et que leur composition demeure ainsi distincte. Par ailleurs dans le second régime, correspondant aux niveaux élevés de dispersion, la diversité régionale diminue au profit d’une augmentation de la diversité locale. Les communautés locales sont plus productives mais leur stabilité dynamique est réduite suite à la migration importante d’individus. Ce régime est aussi caractérisé par des assemblages incluant une plus grande diversité d’interactions interspécifiques. Ces résultats suggèrent qu’une augmentation du niveau de dispersion des organismes permet de coupler les communautés locales entre elles ce qui accroît la coexistence locale et favorise la formation de communautés écologiques plus riches et plus complexes. Finalement, notre étude suggère que le mutualisme est fondamentale à l’organisation et au maintient des communautés écologiques. Les espèces mutualistes dominent dans les habitats caractérisés par une capacité limite restreinte et servent d’ingénieurs écologiques en facilitant l’établissement de compétiteurs, prédateurs et opportunistes qui bénéficient de leur présence. / This thesis is a study of the role of space in the organization and dynamics of multi-species ecological communities. Two weaknesses can be identified from previous theoretical studies concerned with the spatial dimension of ecological communities: the scarcity of multi-species models based on a spatially explicit representation of space, and the lack of attention toward positive interspecific interactions, such as mutualism, despite the recognition of their ubiquity in ecological systems. This thesis explores this problematic by adopting a theoretical framework based on complex system theory and statistical mechanics. Following this approach, ecological communities can be viewed as complex systems whose global properties emerge from the local interactions between the organisms that composed them, and between the organisms and their environment. The first objective of this thesis is to develop a multi-species metacommunity model which is spatially explicit, individual-based, and centered on a general interspecific interaction web containing exploitation, competition as well as mutualism. In this model, local communities are created by an assembly process whereby species are drawn from a regional pool. Population growth is restricted by a carrying capacity and its dynamics is driven by simple reproduction and dispersal mechanisms acting at the level of single individual. These mechanisms depend on the biotic and abiotic conditions of the local communities and their effect varies with species, time and space. The second objective of this thesis is to determine the impact of an increasing spatial connectivity on the dynamics, and structural and functional properties of this metacommunity. More precisely, we set out to evaluate different community properties under changes in the level of species dispersal: i) the similarity in local community composition and its patterns of spatial correlations, ii) the local and regional diversity and the local species abundance, iii) the local and regional biomass, productivity and dynamical stability, and iv) the structure of the local interaction webs. These properties are examined under two spatial schemes. First, we employ a homogeneous environment, and second we employ a heterogeneous environment whereby the carrying capacity of local communities evolves along a gradient. In general, our results reveal that spatially distributed ecological communities are extremely sensitive to the modes and levels of species dispersal. Their spatiotemporal dynamics as well as their structural and functional properties can undergo profound changes in the form of significant transitions under slight changes of the level of dispersal. These changes are also highlighted by the emergence of spatiotemporal patterns in the spatial distribution of the populations, which are characteristics of phase transition generally observed in physical systems. The metacommunity presents two dynamical regimes. In the first regime, corresponding to weak levels of species dispersal, the assembly dynamics promotes the emergence of species-poor but stable communities made of abundant and strongly mutualistic species. The metacommunity has a high regional diversity since weakly connected communities conserve a distinct assemblage of species. On the other hand, in the second regime, corresponding to strong dispersal rates, regional diversity decreases at the benefit of an increase in local diversity. Local communities are more productive but their stability is reduced due to the important migration of individuals. This regime is also characterized by assemblages containing a richer diversity of interspecific interactions. These results suggest that an augmentation in the level of species dispersal permits organisms to couple local communities together which increases local coexistence and promotes the organization of richer and more complex ecological communities. Finally, our results suggest that mutualism is fundamental to the organization and persistence of ecological communities. Mutualistic species dominate in habitats characterized by a restricted carrying capacity and serve as ecological engineer by facilitating the establishment of competitors, predators and opportunists which benefit from their presence.

We are currently faced with the global challenge of conserving biological diversity while also increasing food production to meet the demands of a growing human population. Land-use change, primarily resulting from conversion to production land, is currently the leading cause of biodiversity loss. This occurs through habitat loss, fragmentation of remaining natural habitats, and resulting edge effects. Land-sparing and land-sharing approaches have been discussed as alternative ways to engineer landscapes to mitigate biodiversity loss while meeting production objectives. However, these represent extremes on a continuum of real-world landscapes, and it will be important to understand the mechanisms by which adjacent land use affects natural remnant ecosystems in order to make local land-management decisions that achieve conservation, as well as production, objectives. This thesis investigates the impact of juxtaposing production and natural forest on the community-wide interactions between lepidopteran herbivores and their parasitoids, as mediated by parasitoid spillover between habitats. The first and overarching objective was to determine whether herbivore productivity drives asymmetrical spillover of predators and parasitoids, primarily from managed to natural habitats, and whether this spillover alters trophic interactions in the recipient habitat. The study of trophic interactions at a community level requires understanding of both direct and indirect interactions. However, community-level indirect interactions are generally difficult to predict and measure, and these have therefore remained understudied. Apparent competition is an indirect interaction mechanism thought to be very important in structuring host-parasitoid assemblages. However, this is known primarily from studies of single species pairs, and its community-wide impacts are less clear. Therefore, my second objective was to determine whether apparent competition could be predicted for all species pairs within an herbivore assemblage, based on a measure of parasitoid overlap. My third objective was to determine whether certain host or parasitoid species traits can predict the involvement of those species in apparent competition. My key findings were that there is a net spillover of generalist predators and parasitoids from plantation to native forest, and that for generalists, this depends on herbivore abundance in the plantation forest. Herbivore populations across the edge were linked by shared parasitoids in apparent competition. Consequently, an experimental reduction of herbivore density in the plantation forest changed parasitism rates in the natural forest, as predicted based on parasitoid overlap. Finally, several host and parasitoid traits were identified that can predict the degree to which host or parasitoid species will be involved in apparent competition, a finding which may have extensive application in biological control, as well as in predicting spillover edge effects. Overall, this work suggests that asymmetrical spillover between production and natural habitats occurs in relation to productivity differences, with greater movement of predators and parasitoids in the managed-to-natural forest direction. The degree to which this affected species interactions has implications for landscape design to achieve conservation objectives in production landscapes.

There is concern that climate change may cause mismatches between timing of flowering and activity of pollinators (phenology). However, concluding that mismatches will occur, and have serious consequences for pollination services, requires assumptions that have not yet been tested. I begin by discussing a set of these assumptions, bringing past research into the context of mismatch. Briefly, the assumptions are that 1) dates of first-flowering or emergence (DFFE) correctly describe phenology (and therefore mismatch); 2) differences in DFFE represent the magnitude of mismatch; 3) advancement of DFFE will be the primary phenological change; 4) shifts will be random and independent for each species; 5) populations of plants and pollinators are “bottom-up” regulated by their mutualistic interactions; 6) all interactions are of similar strength and importance; 7) dispersal, and the spatial context of phenological mismatches can be ignored; and ecological processes including 8) phenotypic plasticity and adaptive evolution of phenology, 9) competition and facilitation, and 10) emergence of novel interactions, will not affect mismatches. I then describe novel experiments, which could help to account for some of these assumptions, clarifying the existence and impacts of mismatches. Next, I present an original field experiment on factors affecting seed set in an alpine meadow in the Coast Range of British Columbia, Canada. I found evidence contradicting the assumption that seed set is primarily limited by pollination. My data highlight the roles of phenology, temperature (degree-days above 15°C, and frost hours), and interactions with pollinators (mutualists) and seed-predators (floral antagonists) in driving patterns of seed set. Seed set of early and late-flowering species responded differently to a 400m elevation gradient, which might be explained by phenology of bumble bees. My data suggest that the consequences of mismatch may be smallest for plants that are fly-pollinated and self-fertile. Non-selfing, bee-pollinated species might be more prone to reproductive limitation through mismatch (affected by snowmelt and cumulative degree-days). Plants that are limited by seed-predators might be negatively affected by warming temperatures with fewer frost hours, and extreme events such as late-season frosts and hail storms can prevent plants from setting seed entirely. Overall, my work emphasizes the importance of complementing theory, data-driven simulations, and meta-analyses with experiments carried out in the field. / Graduate

Orientador: Claudio Henrique de Moraes Batalha / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-17T13:07:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Lacerda_DavidP._M.pdf: 10202366 bytes, checksum: ea46ff9a579cf6bc885cd6d8a09f17f5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: Este estudo aborda a experiência mutualista na cidade Rio de Janeiro ao longo do Segundo Reinado. Analisa, em particular, a atuação de um conjunto de sociedades organizadas por artesãos e operários de diferentes ofícios manuais num período em que o Conselho de Estado, órgão consultivo do governo monárquico, cuidou de garantir as prerrogativas das normas para o funcionamento de associações civis e mercantis criadas no império. Esse processo desencadeou um amplo movimento protagonizado por vários grupos sociais interessados em obter o reconhecimento político e legal de suas entidades, estabelecendo, por conseguinte, profundos nexos entre as formas de dominação e as práticas associativas. A dissertação demonstra a partir do exame dos socorros oferecidos e dos modos de recortar o universo social e financeiro, que as mutuais de ofício desempenharam um papel significativo naquele quadro de relações, evidenciando atitudes, expectativas e valores pertencentes ao universo do trabalho e da proteção social / Abstract: This study deals with the mutualist movement experience in the city of Rio de Janeiro during the Second Reign. It analyses, in particular, the acting of a group of societies organized by craftsmen and workers from different kinds of manual occupations during a time when the State Council, a consultative body of the monarchic government, took care to ensure the prerogatives of rules for the action of the civil and mercantile associations created in the imperial period. This process initiated a vast movement performed by many social groups interested in achieving the legal and political recognition of its entities, establishing deep connections between forms of domination and associative practices. The dissertation shows from the examination of the offered assistances and the ways of highlighting the social and financial environment, that the mutual occupational organizations performed a significant role in that framework of relations, pointing attitudes, expectations and values which belong to the universe of work and social protection / Mestrado / Historia Social / Mestre em História

Les Wolbachia sont des alpha-proteobactéries présentes chez de nombreux arthropodes et nématodes filaires. Ces bactéries héritées maternellement induisent chez leurs hôtes des phénotypes allant du parasitisme au mutualisme, avec le long de ce continuum des phénotypes tels que la féminisation (F), l'incompatibilité cytoplasmique (IC) ou la mort des mâles. Wolbachia est ainsi un modèle particulièrement intéressant pour étudier les différents types de relations symbiotiques.Chez Brugia malayi, comme pour les autres nématodes filaires, Wolbachia vit en symbiose obligatoire avec son hôte. L'élimination de la bactérie par des traitements antibiotiques entraîne une perte de fertilité voire la mort du nématode. Chez l'isopode terrestre Armadillidium vulgare, Wolbachia induit la féminisation des mâles génétiques en femelles fonctionnelles entraînant des biais de sex-ratio vers les femelles dans la descendance.Pour comprendre les mécanismes impliqués dans ces deux symbioses, nous avons mis au point une nouvelle méthode de capture pour isoler l'ADN de Wolbachia et séquencer 8 souches de Wolbachia d'isopodes (F et IC). Une étude de génomique comparative a permis d'établir un premier pan-génome des bactéries du genre Wolbachia et d'identifier 2, 5 et 3 gènes présents seulement chez les souches mutualistes, féminisantes ou induisant la mort des mâles. L'expression des gènes potentiellement impliqués dans la féminisation ou le mutualisme a été étudiée au cours du développement de l'hôte. L'étude de l'interactome protéique bactérie-hôte a ensuite été initiée en utilisant comme appât des protéines bactériennes à domaines eucaryotes en vue d'identifier les cibles de Wolbachia chez l'hôte. / Bacteria of the genus Wolbachia are gram-negative alpha-proteobacteria present in many arthropods and filarial nematodes. These obligate intracellular bacteria are maternally inherited and induce a large number of phenotypes across the symbiosis continuum from mutualism to parasitism, including feminization (F), cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) or male killing. Studying Wolbachia symbioses is therefore of particular interest in the investigation of symbiotic relationships.In Brugia malayi and other filarial nematodes, they are obligate leading to a loss of worm fertility, and eventual death upon their depletion with antibiotic. In arthropods, they rather are parasitic. In the isopod crustacean Armadillidium vulgare they cause feminization when present: genetic males develop as functional female leading to female biased sex-ratio progenies.In order to understand the molecular mechanisms of these two symbioses, we set up a new capture procedure to catch Wolbachia DNA and performed whole-genome sequencing on 8 Wolbachia strains, symbionts of isopods (F & CI). Comparative genomics led to the establishment of the Wolbachia pan-genome as well as the identification of phenotype related gene patterns. We identified 2, 5 and 3 genes that are only found in mutualist, feminizing and male killing strains, respectively. Expression of genes potentially involved in feminization and mutualism were also analyzed throughout host post-embryonic development. Host-symbiont interactome approach was then initiated by protein-protein interaction studies using bacterial proteins with eukaryote like motifs as bait in order to identify Wolbachia host targets involved in symbiosis.

En 1944, le Conseil national de la Résistance décide de reconstruire un Etat social dans la continuité du Front populaire, avant que le second conflit ne l’interrompe. Les syndicats ouvriers réunifiés dans la CGT (sauf la CFTC) décident de soutenir ce programme. Les syndicats de fonctionnaires de Seine-Maritime s’organisent pour participer à cette reconstruction qu’ils attendaient. Quels sont leurs revendications ? Sur quoi s’appuient-ils pour les mettre en avant ? Quels sont les valeurs qu’ils défendent ? Attendent-ils tout de l’Etat social ? Quelle est leur conception de cet Etat social ? Enfin, quels moyens utilisent-ils pour le défendre et le faire progresser ? Obtenant la reconnaissance de leur liberté syndicale qui comprend le droit de grève, ils acceptent un statut qui se révèle fort protecteur vis-à-vis de l’administration et de sa hiérarchie. Ils obtiennent aussi la gestion de la Sécurité sociale par leurs mutuelles qui les entraînent, en Seine-Maritime, à construire une mutualité départementale unifiée et puissante. Toutefois, la division du monde en deux blocs, un libéral et un communiste, traverse ces syndicats et aboutit à la scission de 1947. Cela n’empêche pas la participation aux grèves de 1953 qui leur permet de sauver leur retraite. S’ils soutiennent le général de Gaulle (1890-1970) dans sa politique de décolonisation et contre les généraux factieux, ils l’affrontent sur sa politique institutionnelle, économique et sociale. La grève de 1968 en est l’aboutissement, par-delà les remises en cause. Mais pour rétablir l’Etat social qu’ils souhaitent, il leur faut soutenir les campagnes électorales de 1974 et 1981 du candidat de la gauche, François Mitterrand (1916-1996), qui l’emporte en 1981, en dépit de leurs divergences et grâce à la volonté unitaire de leurs militants. / In 1944, the National Council of Resistance decides to rebuild a welfare state, in continuation of the Popular Front, that the second World War stops it. The trade unions reunified, in CGT (except CFTC) decide to sustain this program. The trade unions of civil servants from Seine-Maritime organize themselves to take part in this rebuild that they waited for it. What are their demands ? On What do they lean themselves to put them before ? What are their values for which they fight? Do they wait all from the state ? What is their idea of this welfare state ? At least, what means do they use to fight for it and bring it to progress ? Getting the recognition of their freedom union laws, which includes right striking, they agree civil servant status which turn out very protective against their adminstration and its hierarchy. They get too the management of Health Security by their mutual insurances which lead them, in Seine-Maritme, to build a powerful departemental mutual insurance. However, the division of world in two blocks, one liberal and one communist, goes through these trade unions and leads to the break away of 1947 That does not prevent the participation to strikes of 1953 wich they are be able to save their retirement. If they sustain general De Gaulle in his decolonization policy and ag ainst seditious generals, they clash him on his institutional, économic and social policy. The strike of 1968 is the culmination of it, throuhgout adjournements. But in order to restore the welfare state that they hope, they must sustain lefts’ candidate, François Mitterrand, in their electoral compaigns of 1974 and 1981, who wins in this last year, in spite of their differences and thanks to the Will of unity of their activists.

Ce travail porte sur la vie du Crédit agricole de la Côte-d'Or depuis la création de sa première caisse locale, en 1896, jusqu'en 1975. Durant cette période, l'organisme dédié au financement de l'agriculture, cantonal puis départemental, est devenu progressivement un établissement pratiquement ouvert à toutes les activités et tous les déposants, représentant un tiers du marché bancaire de la Côte-d’Or. Après avoir défini le cadre mutualiste bien particulier dans lequel agissent les caisses, cette étude cherche à comprendre comment il est respecté durant huit décennies. Les évènements sont multiples : guerres, crises économiques, modernisation de l'agriculture, retrait des aides de l'Etat et besoin de collecte, extension du champ de compétence, croissance et augmentation de la taille des établissements, traitements de masse et large ouverture en dehors de l'agriculture. Progressivement, les groupes d'acteurs changent et se multiplient : sociétaires agriculteurs, sociétaires ruraux, déposants, administrateurs, élus locaux, Etat, personnel, cadres dirigeants. Il convient donc de saisir, dans les principales étapes de cette évolution, la manière dont ces acteurs, de plus en plus nombreux, adaptent la banque mutualiste à des contextes toujours changeants. / This work deals with the history of Crédit agricole of Côte-d’Or since the creation of its first local mutual bank, in 1896, until 1975. During this period, this organization dedicated to the financing of agriculture, in the very local scale of cantons at the beginning and then in the whole Côte-d’Or district scale, becomes progressively a credit institution nearly opened to all activities and all depositors having a banking market share of 30% in this area. After having defined the framework quite particular of mutualism in which are acting these banks, this study tries to understand how they respect it during eight decades. Many events are occurring: wars, economic crises, agricultural modernization, withdrawal of State aids and consequently financial resources needs, widening of the sphere of operation, growth and extension of the branches, processing of mass and large range of activities outside the agricultural sector. Progressively, groups of economic, social and political players are changing and more numerous: farmers, country people, depositors, administrators, local elected representatives, State, staff, members of the management. It is right to understand, at the main stages of this evolution, the way by which these more and more numerous players adapt the mutual bank to ceaselessly changeable contexts.

<p>Eastern black walnut (<i>Juglans nigra</i> L.) ranks among the most highly valued timber species in the central hardwood forest and across the world. This valuable tree fills a critical role in native ecosystems as a mast bearing pioneer on mesic sites. Along with other <i>Juglans</i> spp. (Juglandaceae), <i>J. nigra</i> is threatened by thousand cankers disease (TCD), an insect-vectored disease first described in 2009. TCD is caused by the bark beetle <i>Pityophthorus juglandis</i> Blackman (Corthylini) and the phytopathogenic fungus <i>Geosmithia morbida</i> Kol. Free. Ut. & Tiss. (Bionectriaceae). Together, the <i>P. juglandis</i>-<i>G. morbida</i> complex has expanded from its historical range in southwest North America throughout the western United States (U.S.) and Europe. This range expansion has led to widespread mortality among naïve hosts <i>J. nigra</i> and <i>J. regia</i> planted outside their native distributions.</p> <p> The severity of TCD was previously observed to be highest in urban and plantation environments and outside of the host native range. Therefore, the objective of this work was to provide information on biotic and abiotic environmental factors that influence the severity and impact of TCD across the native and non-native range of <i>J. nigra</i> and across different climatic and management regimes. This knowledge would enable a better assessment of the risk posed by TCD and a basis for developing management activities that impart resilience to natural systems. Through a series of greenhouse-, laboratory- and field-based experiments, environmental factors that affect the pathogenicity and/or survival of <i>G. morbida</i> in <i>J. nigra</i> were identified, with a focus on the microbiome, climate, and opportunistic pathogens. A number of potentially important interactions among host, vector, pathogen and the rest of the holobiont of TCD were characterized. The <i>holobiont</i> is defined as the whole multitrophic community of organisms—including <i>J. nigra</i>, microinvertebrates, fungi and bacteria—that interact with one another and with the host.</p> <p>Our findings indicate that interactions among host, vector, pathogen, secondary pathogens, novel microbial communities, and novel abiotic environments modulate the severity of TCD in native, non-native, and managed and unmanaged contexts. Prevailing climatic conditions favor reproduction and spread of <i>G. morbida</i> in the western United States due to the effect of wood moisture content on fungal competition. The microbiome of soils, roots, and stems of trees and seedlings grown outside the host native range harbor distinct, lower-diversity communities of bacteria and fungi compared to the native range, including different communities of beneficial or pathogenic functional groups of fungi. The pathogen <i>G. morbida</i> was also associated with a distinct community of microbes in stems compared to <i>G. morbida</i>-negative trees. The soil microbiome from intensively-managed plantations facilitated positive feedback between <i>G. morbida</i> and a disease-promomting endophytic <i>Fusarium solani</i> species complex sp. in roots of <i>J. nigra</i> seedlings. Finally, the nematode species <i>Bursaphelenchus juglandis</i> associated with <i>P. juglandis</i> synergizes with <i>G. morbida</i> to cause foliar symptoms in seedlings in a shadehouse; conversely, experiments and observations indicated that the nematode species <i>Panagrolaimus</i> sp. and cf. <i>Ektaphelenchus</i> sp. could suppress WTB populations and/or TCD outbreaks.</p> <p>In conclusion, the composition, function, and interactions within the <i>P. juglandis</i> and <i>J. nigra</i> holobiont play important roles in the TCD pathosystem. Managers and conservationists should be aware that novel associations outside the host native range, or in monocultures, intensive nursery production, and urban and low-humidity environments may favor progression of the disease through the effects of associated phytobiomes, nematodes, and climatic conditions on disease etiology. Trees in higher diversity, less intensively managed growing environments within their native range may be more resilient to disease. Moreover, expatriated, susceptible host species (<i>i.e.</i>, <i>J. nigra</i>) growing in environments that are favorable to novel pests or pest complexes (<i>i.e.</i>, the western U.S.) may provide connectivity between emergent forest health threats (<i>i.e.</i>, TCD) and native host populations (<i>i.e.</i>, <i>J. nigra</i> in its native range).</p>

Tesis por compendio / [ES] Los pseudocóccidos (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), comúnmente conocidos como cochinillas harinosas, son insectos hemípteros chupadores de savia que se alimentan del floema de las plantas. Estos insectos están entre las plagas más perjudiciales de varios cultivos subtropicales. En la cuenca mediterránea, diversas especies invasoras de pseudocóccidos se han establecido y convertido en plagas clave de cítricos y caquis, dos cultivos que abarcan un amplio territorio y tienen una gran importancia económica en la Comunidad Valenciana. Convencionalmente, los pseudocóccidos han sido controlados mediante el uso de insecticidas; sin embargo, los riesgos ambientales que conlleva su uso han llevado a la implementación de políticas para reducir su uso, incluida la prohibición de varias materias activas. Por lo tanto, es necesario desarrollar e implementar estrategias de gestión alternativas. Entre estas estrategias, fomentar el control biológico es una de las más prometedoras. Para identificar y evaluar diferentes estrategias que puedan mejorar el control biológico de pseudocóccidos, en esta tesis estudié varios factores que pueden influir en la abundancia de estas plagas en cultivos subtropicales mediterráneos. En el primer capítulo, describí las interacciones entre las hormigas nativas del Mediterráneo y el pseudocóccido invasor Delottococcus aberiae en los cítricos mediterráneos. Demostré que la hormiga mediterránea Lasius grandis y D. aberiae han establecido una relación mutualista que puede facilitar la invasión del pseudocóccido. En el segundo capítulo, evalué si la exclusión física de L. grandis de las copas de los cítricos puede mejorar el control de D. aberiae. Descubrí que la exclusión de hormigas de las copas de los cítricos puede reducir la densidad y el daño de D. aberiae, probablemente debido a un aumento en la abundancia de depredadores generalistas. En el tercer capítulo, identifiqué el complejo de pseudocóccidos que ataca al caqui mediterráneo y describí su dinámica estacional. Este estudio reveló que Pseudococcus longispinus se ha convertido en la especie de pseudocóccido más abundante en el cultivo y puede alcanzar niveles altos de infestación en la cosecha. También describí la fenología de P. longispinus y evalué el efecto potencial del cambio climático en su fenología, prediciendo que el número de generaciones y el daño potencial aumentarán en los próximos años. En el cuarto capítulo, identifiqué el complejo de parasitoides de P. longispinus en caqui. Descubrí que P. longispinus estuvo parasitado por un complejo diverso de parasitoides dominado por una especie de encírtido, Anagyrus fusciventris. Este parasitoide puede reducir eficazmente la densidad de la plaga a pesar de la alta abundancia de hiperparasitoides. También determiné el tamaño del hospedador parasitado por A. fusciventris, lo cual sería valioso para programar liberaciones de parasitoides. Finalmente, en el quinto capítulo, evalué si la heterogeneidad del hábitat afecta la densidad de pseudocóccidos en cítricos y caquis. Por un lado, encontré que la proporción de monocultivo circundante aumentó la densidad tanto de D. aberiae en los cítricos como de P. longispinus en caqui. Por otro lado, los hábitats no agrícolas, tanto los hábitats seminaturales que rodean el cultivo como la cubierta vegetal entre filas, redujeron la abundancia de P. longispinus en caqui al aumentar su parasitismo. Estos hallazgos mostraron que las estrategias de diversificación del hábitat pueden mejorar el control de los pseudocóccidos. En resumen, esta tesis ha identificado diferentes estrategias que pueden implementarse para mejorar el control biológico de las cochinillas en cítricos y caquis mediterráneos, incluyendo la gestión de hormigas mutualistas, la liberación aumentativa de parasitoides y la gestión del hábitat. Los hallazgos de esta tesis deben ser considerados dentro de los programas de Gestión Integrada de Plagas contra pseudocóccidos en cultivos subtropicales. / [CA] Els pseudocòccids (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), coneguts com cotonets, són insectes hemípters xucladors de saba que s'alimente del floema de les plantes. Aquests insectes estan entre les plagues més perjudicials per a diversos cultius subtropicals. A la conca mediterrània, diverses espècies invasores de cotonets s'han establert i esdevingut plagues clau en diversos cultius, com ara els cítrics i els caquis, que abasten un ampli territori i tenen una gran importància econòmica a la Comunitat Valenciana. Convencionalment, els cotonets s'han controlat mitjançant l'ús insecticides; no obstant això, els riscos ambientals han portat a la implementació de polítiques per reduir el seu ús, incloent la prohibició de diverses matèries actives. Per tant, és necessari implementar estratègies de gestió alternatives. Entre aquestes estratègies, fomentar el control biològic és una de les més prometedores. Per identificar i avaluar diferents estratègies que puguen millorar el control biològic dels cotonets, en esta tesi vaig estudiar diversos factors que poden influir en l'abundància d'estes plagues en cultius subtropicals mediterranis. Al primer capítol, vaig descriure les interaccions entre les formigues natives del Mediterrani i el cotonet invasor Delottococcus aberiae en els cítrics mediterranis. Ací vaig demostrar que la formiga mediterrània Lasius grandis i D. aberiae han establert una relació mutualista que pot facilitar la invasió del pseudocòccid. Al segon capítol, vaig avaluar si l'exclusió física de L. grandis de les copes dels cítrics pot millorar el control de D. aberiae. Vaig descobrir que l'exclusió de formigues de les copes dels cítrics pot reduir la densitat i el danys de D. aberiae, probablement a causa d'un augment en l'abundància de depredadors generalistes. Al tercer capítol, vaig identificar les espècies de cotonets que ataquen el caqui mediterrani i vaig descriure la seua dinàmica estacional. Aquest estudi va revelar que Pseudococcus longispinus s'ha convertit en l'espècie de cotonet més abundant en el cultiu i pot arribar a nivells alts d'infestació en la collita. També vaig descriure la fenologia de P. longispinus i vaig avaluar l'efecte potencial del canvi climàtic en la fenologia del cotonet, predient que el nombre de generacions i el possible dany augmentaran en els propers anys. Al quart capítol, vaig identificar el complex de parasitoids de P. longispinus en caqui. Vaig descobrir que P. longispinus estava parasitat per un complex divers de parasitoids dominat per una espècie d'encírtid, Anagyrus fusciventris. Aquesta espècie pot reduir eficaçment la densitat de la plaga malgrat l'alta abundància d'hiperparasitoids. També vaig determinar el tamany de cotonet parasitat per A. fusciventris, aquesta característica biològica és clau per dissenyar els programes de control biològic augmentatiu. Finalment, al cinquè capítol, vaig avaluar si la heterogeneïtat del hàbitat afecta la densitat de pseudocòcids en cítrics i caquis. Per una banda, vaig trobar que la proporció de monocultiu circumdant va augmentar la densitat tant de D. aberiae en els cítrics com de P. longispinus en caqui. Per altra banda, els hàbitats no agrícoles, tant els hàbitats semi-naturals que envolten el cultiu com la vegetació de cobertura entre files, van reduir l'abundància de P. longispinus en caqui al augmentar el seu parasitisme. Aquests descobriments van a mostrar que les estratègies de diversificació del hàbitat poden millorar el control dels cotonets. En resum, aquesta tesi ha identificat diferents estratègies que poden ser implementades per millorar el control biològic dels cotonets en cítrics i caquis mediterranis, incloent la gestió de formigues mutualistes, la solta massiva de parasitoids i la gestió de l'hàbitat. Els resultats d'aquesta tesi han de ser considerats dins dels programes de Gestió Integrat de Plagues contra els cotonets en cultius subtropicals. / [EN] Pseudococcids (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), commonly known as mealybugs, are sap-sucking hemipteran insects that feed on the phloem of plants. These insects are among the most damaging pests to various subtropical crops. In the Mediterranean basin, several species of invasive mealybugs have established and become key pests in various crops such as citrus and persimmon. These crops cover a large territory and hold high economic importance in the Valencian Community. Mealybugs have been traditionally managed with insecticides. However, their environmental risks have led to the implementation of policies to reduce insecticide use, including the prohibition of several active substances. Therefore, it is necessary to implement alternative management strategies. Among these strategies, biological control is one of the most promising. To identify and evaluate different strategies that can enhance the biological control of mealybugs, in this thesis I studied several factors potentially influencing mealybug abundance in Mediterranean subtropical crops. In the first chapter, I described the interactions between Mediterranean native ants and the invasive mealybug Delottococcus aberiae in Mediterranean citrus. Here, I demonstrated that the Mediterranean ant Lasius grandis and D. aberiae have established a mutualistic relationship that can facilitate the invasion of the mealybug. In the second chapter, I assessed whether the physical exclusion of L. grandis from citrus canopies may enhance the control of D. aberiae. I found that ant-exclusion from citrus canopies can reduce D. aberiae density and damage, likely because of an increase in the abundance of generalist predators. In the third chapter, I identified the complex of mealybugs attacking Mediterranean persimmon and described their seasonal trend. This study revealed that Pseudococcus longispinus has become the most abundant mealybug species in the crop and can reach high infestation levels at harvest. I also described the phenology of P. longispinus and evaluated the potential effect of climate warming on mealybug phenology, predicting that the number of generations and potential damage will increase in the following years. In the fourth chapter, I identified the parasitoid complex of P. longispinus in persimmon. I found that P. longispinus was parasitized by a diverse complex of parasitoids dominated by one encyrtid species, Anagyrus fusciventris. This parasitoid can effectively reduce the density of the pest despite the high abundance of hyperparasitoids. I also determined the preferred host size used by A. fusciventris, which will be valuable to design an augmentative biological control program. Finally, in the fifth chapter, I assessed whether habitat heterogeneity affects the density of mealybugs in citrus and persimmon. First, I found that the proportion of surrounding monoculture increased the abundance of both D. aberiae in citrus and P. longispinus in persimmon. Furthermore, non-crop habitats, both semi-natural habitats surrounding the crop and inter-row ground cover vegetation, reduced the abundance of P. longispinus in persimmon by increasing parasitism. These findings revealed that habitat diversification strategies can enhance mealybug control. Overall, this thesis has identified different strategies that can be implemented to enhance the biological control of mealybugs in Mediterranean citrus and persimmon, including the management of mutualistic ants, the augmentative release of parasitoids, and habitat management. The findings of this thesis must be considered within the Integrated Pest Management programs against mealybugs in subtropical crops. / This PhD Thesis was supported by the national project RTA2017-00095 from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation and Ángel Plata received the predoctoral grant PRE2018-083714 from Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation. / Plata Sánchez, Á. (2024). Enhancing Biological Control of Mealybugs in Mediterranean Subtropical Crops [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/209827 / Compendio