Though no comprehensive study has been made of them previously, the post-war Hertfordshire Schools are well known for progressive design and for pioneering prefabrication on a large scale. In Part 1 the background to Hertfordshire's building programme is examined in the light of the 1944 Education Act and post-war population growth coupled with severe shortages of conventional building materials and labour. Part 2 explores Hertfordshire's response to this challenge: rejecting the use of war-time hutting for new primary schools, construction offering more permanency, and freedom to design a proper teaching environment was sought. A prototype was built and a vital process of "development," informing both construction and design, emerges as the key to progress. The process is shown to have begun with the adoption of a set of novel, but existing, building components; continuing analysis, modification and selective substitution led to the evolution of an integrated constructional system. Close collaboration with both clients and manufacturers ensured that optimum fitness-for-purpose in relation to cost was achieved. The interest created by this new type of architecture is discussed before turning, in Part 3, to its extension to the more complex needs of secondary schools and colleges. It is shown that once the approach was established the main challenge was organisational; alternative materials and modules, together with internal questionings of its validity in changing conditions, were all absorbed by the development process. The approach was emulated by others who introduced the consortium idea to ensure economical component manufacture; the period reviewed ends with the formation of the South Eastern Architects Collaboration (SEAC). It is strikingly clear that the influence of modernist architectural precepts, per se, was negligible. Yet by a remorseless objectivity of design the schools achieved, perhaps uniquely, the fullest realisation of Modern Movement principles, a matter of significance to architectural history.

The UK Government has set ambitious targets for reducing energy use in buildings, including the target for all new homes to be zero-carbon by 2016. In addition, the government is committed to promote Modern Methods of Construction (MMC) as a solution for the shortage in housing that the country has been experiencing for a number of years. MMC have the potential to meet the new stricter building regulations and produce better quality homes that may use less energy for space heating but may also create homes that are more susceptible to overheating. Hence the paradox lies on the fact that a rising demand for cooling may be a result of the effort to reduce energy demand for heating. This innovative research evaluates eight different construction methods built to meet the proposed targets and demonstrates by means of computer simulations and field monitoring that overheating in British homes may be a serious current issue if it is not accounted for during the design and construction of houses and that it will be a major problem in the future, when most of the houses built now will still be in use. It also shows that traditional heavyweight thermal mass integrated in a dwelling envelope may help overcome the issue but it presents limited benefits in highly insulated buildings and its integration may jeopardise some of the benefits of MMC constructions. Therefore the use of solutions such as Phase Change Materials (PCM) and Earth-Air Heat Exchangers (EAHE) may become of more importance in the near future. These strategies have been assessed by means of computer simulation, laboratory and field experimental work and have been shown effective. Two real life applications where these strategies are combined, the Stoneguard House and the BASF House, both part of the Creative Energy Homes project, have been investigated. The houses were appraised not just in today's climate but also in the future, taking into account some of the potential effects of climate change. In addition, a novel type of low-energy space conditioning system has been proposed by the author and tested with positive results. The hybrid system integrates PCMs and EAHEs aiming to overcome the limitations of both strategies and to provide occupants with a pleasant alternative to the conventional air-condition systems.

Buildings are responsible for over 70% of the average city’s greenhouse gas emissions. As the key component of buildings, window serves very important role in architecture. In current energy efficient building practice, windows are considerably less well insulating component than other parts of the building envelope. Therefore improving windows thermal performance is an important issue to develop energy efficiency building design. This research is carried out from the case studies of zero/low carbon buildings, in which windows were found the weakest part of building envelope. Within this work state-of-the-art window glazing types, latest best performing fenestration products in the market and advanced window technologies are reviewed. Vacuum window technology using evacauted tube pannels will be presented in this research work, as well as Thermoelectric (TEC) window system and Thermoelectric power generation window system. The objectives of the development of novel window systems are: (1) to develop the first-of-its-kind window technology using evacuated tube panels, its thermal transmittance (U-value) will be studied; (2) In order to compare U-values data with high performance windows, thermal performance of novel designed Aerogel and argon window system will be investigated; (3) to develop novel window system by combining evacuated tube panels and thermoelectric modules, which is functioned as a heat pump device; (4) to develop window system as a power generation device by interating thermoelectric generator. Novel windows technologies would meet the requirements of the Code for Sustainable Homes and those of commercial buildings. The study on development of novel window systems is carried on from the current window technologies and includes: (1) Computer modelling results show U-values about 0.59 W/m2K for double wall vacuum tube window, 0.61 W/m2K for single wall vacuum tube window. Laboratory measurements are carried out to validate theoretical results. The test results show that 1.0 W/m2K and 1.1 W/m2K for double and single wall vacuum tube window respectively. Economic and environmental assessments are also analysed. (2) Numerical model and laboratory tests have illustrated the U-values of different thickness of aerogel, argon and combination of both filled window. Comparing to standard double glazed window unit with 20mm air gap (U-value of 2.8 W/m2K), the U-value result of 6mm Aerogel-Argon window can be improved by 45% in theory and 30% according to the laboratory measurement results. (3) Advanced glazing will become “Energy Suppliers” as well as “Energy Managers”. Novel design of thermoelectric window system may function as “a heat pump” contributing buildings’ heating load in winter. Laboratory and outdoor tests investigate the amount of heat supply under various voltage regimes and weather conditions. (4) The electric power output of thermoelectric generator device combined with vacuum tube is examined under different experimental thermal conditions. The use of TEM has advantages of its maintainance free and can operate from any heat source. Window unit (sized1m×1m) installed such device can generate electricity approximately 70~180W.

The research work is in the area of architectural design guidelines and more particularly in the interior design of kindergartens in Palestine. The aim of this research is to enhance the quality of learning environment of kindergartens in Palestine by developing a new design and monitoring guidelines. The research focuses on the methodology of developing the interior learning environment of kindergartens, which based mainly on understanding the key players’ needs, difficulties and problems in this sector in Palestine. The study uses three international case studies from (Japan, Austria and South Africa) in addition to cases from the UK. The international studies hold general concepts that could be considered international criteria, from which the future Palestinian kindergartens building regulations can learn and take advantage, after re-moulding them in the Palestinian culture and characteristics. It is believed that, regardless of the disadvantages and difficulties of the current Palestinian kindergarten buildings, these buildings carry unique principles and characteristics that can enhance and enrich the Palestinian learning environment. Furthermore, this study has a three local case study from Palestine, which are used to make a comparison between: the Palestinian unique principles; the international principles; and the missing principles in the current Palestinian kindergarten buildings. As a result of this comparison it will be determined what should be kept or excluded from the previous three drivers, while suggesting new ‘drafts’ and recommendations. These drafts are discussed with key players to outline the main difficulties they may face in applying them or monitoring them by MOHE. This will enable the study to generate the best final recommendations that can meet the Palestinians’ needs and aspirations. These final recommendations will be considered as the base that MOHE can rely on in forming their own regulations in the future.

This thesis presents a model for analysing the graphic object as urban object, by considering atypical fields of discourse that contribute to the formation of the object domain. The question: what is graphic design as urban design? directs the research through an epistemological design study comprising: an interrogation of graphic design studio practice and the articulation of graphic design research questions; a review and subsequent development of research strategy, design and method towards the articulation of methodology that reflects the nature of the inquiry; a detailed analysis of five different ways to study and research graphic design as urban design, in geography, language, visual communication, art and design, and urban design. The outcome of the investigation is a model that enables future research in the urban environment to benefit from micro-meso-macrographic analysis. The model endeavours to provide a way to evaluate, design and enhance ‘public places and urban spaces’ by considering different scales of symbolic thought and deed. This has been achieved by acknowledging the relationship between the relatively miniscule detail of graphic symbolism, the point at which this becomes visible through increased scale, and the instances when it dominates the urban realm. Examples are considered that show differences between, for example, the size and spacing of letter shapes on a pedestrian sign, compared to the ‘visual’ impact of an iconic building in the cityscape. In between is a myriad of graphic elements that are experienced and designed by many different professional disciplines and occupations. These are evidenced and explained. Throughout the study an indiscriminating literature review is interwoven with the text, accompanied by tabular information, and visual data in the form of photographs and diagrams. This is mainly research-driven data utilising photographs from fieldwork in Brazil, Canada, Hong Kong, Italy, Portugal, South Korea, United Kingdom, and United States of America. The methodology integrates a transdisciplinary adaptive theory approach derived from sociological research, with graphic method (utilising a wider scope of visual data usually associated with graph theory). The following images provide sixteen examples of artefacts representing the graphic object as urban object phenomenon.

A key objective of this research was to carry out a Post Occupancy Evaluation on a sustainable home recently built in the United Kingdom (UK) (code level 4, UK-CSH) through first person research in order to produce evidence that shows that the assessment process and the certification obtained are not enough to secure targets, given that the inclusion of occupants and its complexity have not been fully considered. Furthermore, the research reveals that the occupants of sustainable homes are not fully aware of the lifestyle implications of such homes. The inhabitants’ experience of living and the performance in the experimental sustainable home produced qualitative data that was integrated with the quantitative data generated and collected by several different tools to measure them. Among the tools the main one was the 48-sensors monitoring system installed in the house, the other tools were a tracking device system to analyse individual used of energy and room permanence, diary of home events, walk through, observations and photographs for architecture analysis, extended and short length questionnaires and face to face interviews were applied. The techniques to process and analyse the obtained data ranged from simple Excel spreadsheets to the use of software packages, such as SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) and NVivo (for verbatim interviews). And, one of the main differences between this POE study and those usually undertaken is the fact that this was a first-person research. ‘Hands on’ experience makes it possible to identify, select and verify real and direct problems that affect the expected performance of a sustainable home. So, when the research process is re-applied to a similar condition, it facilitates the procedure and techniques, potentially avoiding the production of excessive data and over-sophisticated measuring systems and reducing the time taken to obtain robust results. This procedure should especially be applied to social housing which is industrialised and has similar specifications. In the drive to make homes sustainable, energy efficiency measures are moving at a pace far in excess of the preparedness of home users and their culture. The results of this research provide evidence of the importance of this issue and the lesson learned from the first person research, as a tool for post occupancy evaluation, is that certain problems can easily be solved while others require more profound revision. Instead of just being a new home for exhibition purposes, demonstration homes present an opportunity for implementing a First Home Occupant POE procedure, especially on new massive sustainable “social housing” developments, as they can be built quickly and inhabited by any prospective tenant willing to contribute to sustainable living, before other new owners or tenants move in.

The question of dwelling, how, where, in what way and in what manner describes a crisis in many professional women's lives especially when living in pursuit of equality becomes dissatisfying and the demands of traditional stereotypes unappealing. Books such as Desiring Practices (1995) demonstrate the need for some sort of shared expression and community to resolve the career frustrations of working academics in traditionally male dominated environments. Documents such as Why Women Leave Practice? (2003) record what is seen as a very real difficulty for the Institution. The important aspect of Irigaray's work for these debates, however, is how she has already begun to unravel the problems women face in contemporary societies. For architects concerned with diversity, her work is an incitement to reformulate this question by thinking how we can positively approach sexual difference as the basis for approaching all other differences. For feminists, Irigaray's philosophy also presents the possibility of a practice (albeit a practice profoundly reconsidered) beyond a simple desire for equality with men but nevertheless, without denying the problem of a culture of discrimination within the profession. Furthermore, for theorists concerned with how we approach the other, the hidden, or the devalued within our discourses her work is motive to take further these theories towards a more radical poetic or artistic practice. The question of dwelling as a reconsideration of coexistence, co-habitation and co-belonging, as relation rethought, extends the problem of the intimate to address issues of the architectural.

The PhD thesis with the title “Investigation of several critical issues in screen mesh heat pipe manufacturing and operation” presented hereafter describes work carried out in four main areas. Initially the relevant literature is reviewed and presented, followed by the presentation of theoretical work regarding screen mesh heat pipe fill calculations, heat pipe processing and an investigation into the capillary or lifting height for screen mesh heat pipes. Further, the possibility of tailoring screen mesh heat pipes towards certain applications was investigated and it was found that further work is required in this area to allow a conclusive judgement whether a coarser or finer wick at the wall provides a distinguish advantage over two wraps of a medium coarse type. Within this approach a calculation method for the determination of the optimum working fluid fill of a screen mesh heat pipe based on geometrical parameters of the wick was developed and successfully implemented for the production of the later tested samples. The investigation into the effects of bending on the heat pipe performance, both using single phase flow CFD as well as experimentation, was performed using five different geometrical cases, each with five samples. These were tested in order to minimise the effects of sample variation. The test cases investigated contained the deformation angles of 0° (straight), 45°, 90°, 135° and 180°. During all test cases the orientation of the samples was kept constant at 0° to minimise additional influences like the effects of gravity on the reduction of available power handling capability. The test results show in deviation from CFD results that screen mesh heat pipe performance is significantly affected when bends are introduced and the reduction in power handling capability can be up to nearly 50% of a straight heat pipe value. Finally this thesis advances into the field of water heat pipe freeze thaw and the possibility of screen mesh heat pipes with changed shapes to withstand multiple freeze thaw cycles. It was found that correctly engineered screen mesh copper water heat pipes can be used in applications where they are subjected to multiple freeze thaw cycles. The fluid charge for water heat pipes subjected to these conditions needs to be adjusted in such a way, that accumulation of working fluid in certain areas, regardless of orientation or process variation during filling, is avoided.

Pneumatic clear foil cushion systems, notably as ETFE foil cushions have been developed as an alternative technology to large-scale glass glazing systems for wide-span buildings. The systems display better thermal performance and have advantages of extremely low dead-weight constructions compared to conventional glazing systems, and thereby the increasing popularity of foil cushion cladding systems have been witnessed in the last decades. However due to their lightweight and thinness, the thermal behaviour of architectural foil membranes exhibits a high responsiveness to variations in external conditions. For this reason, it is argued that the reliable prediction of the thermal environment experienced in a space enclosed by a tensile membrane skin construction would require a bespoke modelling of the dynamic thermal behaviour of such a construction at first. Building envelopes clad with such cushions, such as the famous Eden project in the UK, need a dynamic system to control overheating in summer. A cooling liquid layer constructed within a clear multi-layer toil cushion envelope is proposed in this thesis. It enables rapid cooling effects on the building envelope. The system is based on an evaporative cooling mechanism and is integrated with the inflated cushion to provide desired cooling effect eco-friendly. The implications of the forms and configurations of clear foil cushion constructions with and without a cooling liquid layer in the overheating control were evaluated in this research project. Data were collected from a series of experiments to ascertain the effects of the additional cooling water layer on heat transfer processes within the foil skin construction. The results demonstrated that the thermal behaviour of a foil penal depended mainly on surface convection and radiation heat transfer and the cooling performance of the water layer within the foil skin constructions was evident. The initial experimental outcomes were valuable for the design of such novel dynamic cooling systems. In order to assess the effect that different pneumatic foil skin constructions with a water layer might have on thermal conditions inside the enclosed space, the thermal behaviour of full-scale indoor double-layer foil cushion enclosure and triple-layer foil skin construction, with varying evaporative cooling integrative ways and foil skin constructions, were tested during the course of this research. The test datasets were compared according to the research objectives and with the environmental control strategy proposed at the initial design stages. The investigated thermal behaviour of the foil skin constructions incorporating a water layer serves as a reference basis for the analytic modelling of the tested double and triple-layer foil skin constructions in order to predict their surface temperatures and the solar radiation directed into the space they enclose. The approach is based on a detailed modelling of the radiative and convective heat transfer processes affecting the membrane surfaces. These prediction results derived from the model were compared against the environmental data obtained on the test rigs. The developed analytical model is only tentative, as some thermal transfer processes, such as long wave radiation exchanges between the foil sheets, have not been accounted for in this model. Further work is required to develop this model in order to appreciate the thermal performance of such novel foil cushion constructions more precisely and extend their building applications.

Cavalier Perspective has previously been described as merely a pictorial technique of spatial representation within the history of Chinese painting. It is a common belief that this unique visual system is capable of providing an experience of three-dimensional spatial perception in both representational art and actual space, in a manner similar to technique of foreshortening and perspective in post-renaissance western art. However, as Chinese ancient artists have a different understanding of geometry and philosophy, it is difficult to either define the origin and nature of the technique itself or to identify which particular visual phenomena it is intended to communicate, when artists transform three-dimensional space into two-dimensional surface information. The thesis begins by presenting an iconological analysis of the Chinese visual representation of space, in order to develop this visual study into a psychological analysis of the perception of three-dimensional form. To redefine Cavalier Perspective, it is necessary to firstly conduct a historical survey based on available visual evidence of both architecture and landscape representation. In both cases, the represented objects are transformed into flattened forms; and a psychological consequence thus appears involving the loss of a sense of depth in vision, which consequently contributes to the psychology of visual perception. To reassemble, and thus reactivate a similar perception in the representation of space, Chinese ancient artists are also believed to have created specific visual schemes to help reconstitute the perception of depth; thus rendering pictorial space perceptible. Cavalier Perspective is seen as just such a perceptual system. Consequently, the theoretical part of the thesis conducts an iconological study by elaborating a hierarchy of form, technique, and scheme in the history of Chinese spatial representation. After that, a theoretical association is formulated between iconology and visual perception, in which visual techniques are identified as potential cues to indicate depth. The translation between visual technique and depth cue appears so compulsive for both modem scholars and ancient artists that, to a certain extent, the progress of the visual arts could be described as the discovery of techniques for presenting depth through purposive patterns of form. Symbolic images are therefore seen to have their concrete formal basis established upon both pictorial idea and, more importantly, the psychology of visual perception. The thesis aspires to challenge CP by means of this formal analysis. Whether it belongs to a simple technique or a sophisticated visual scheme of ancient Chinese artists; the representational space of geometry; the making of visual perception by means of technical implements; and the bodily experience in actual space, are all shown to be indispensible parts of the present research. A concluding case study of the Chinese landscape garden gives a further demonstration that the pictorial ideas and visual techniques that once contributed to the iconological and psychological understanding of Chinese painting have also delivered an idealised form of spatial perception within the garden - where the sense of depth is firstly eliminated, and then artistically reconstituted. In this way, the nature of cavalier perspective will therefore have been explored on two levels - in the form of both spatial representation and bodily perception in actual space.