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Development and calibration of NuLat, A new type of neutrino detectorDing, Xinjian 27 April 2018 (has links)
Over the past 20 years, the detection of neutrino oscillation has reported a lot of important results. The oscillation phenomenon itself has been well proved by various experiments. Some oscillation parameters has been measured and now in the area of precise determination. On the other hand, some new questions like the possibility of the existence of light sterile neutrinos and unexpected 5 MeV bump were raised during the measurement. The Neutrino Lattice Experiment (NuLat) is a detector based on the Raghavan Optical Lattice (ROL). It should be able to offer a compact design of an effective detector with good mobility. It can be extremely useful in the short baseline reactor neutrino oscillation detection community to resolve several confusing issues. In this thesis, we present the calibration results we got from the first active NuLat detector and show what kind of improvements we need for the next version of the NuLat detector based on these results. / Ph. D. / During the last century, physicists have developed a nice framework to describe the physics world we live. The model which we called Standard Model has been constructed to describe the behavior of elementary particles and nicely explain the phenomenon we found from various experiments. However there are still a lot mysteries which cannot be explained by this model and more precise measurements on different fields of particle physics are need to help us improve our understanding about this. Neutrino oscillation is one of the most important field related to this kind of concern.
The Neutrino Lattice Experiment (NuLat) is a new type of neutrino detector. It has a good geometry reconstruction ability based on the the Raghavan Optical Lattice (ROL). Since we cannot directly see the elementary particles, we always rely on the signals generated by the reaction between particles and our detector. How to interpret the signals becomes crucial at this point to have high quality experimental data. NuLat is such kind of neutrino detector which offer good ability for us to interpret the signal right. It has a compact design compared to most of other detectors in this field. This is really useful because it can be implemented with limited space where other detectors might have difficulties. Simultaneously the ROL design can help offer nice background rejection ability and high energy resolution.
In this thesis, we discuss the progress about develop and assembly of the first active NuLat detector with the preliminary calibration data which give us basic understanding about the performance of this first version.
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Estudo analítico das probabilidades de oscilação de neutrinos na matéria em três gerações / Analytical study of the neutrino iscillation probalities in the matter in three generationsLicciardi, Caio Augusto Pelegrina Del Bianco 09 August 2007 (has links)
Neste projeto realizamos um estudo sobre as fórmulas de probabilidades de oscilação de neutrinos na matéria em duas e três gerações. Estudamos extensivamente a fenomenologia e os experimentos de oscilação de neutrinos. Além de rever todas as expressões analíticas para as soluções exatas e aproximadas conhecidas na literatura para as probabilidades de conversão, também desenvolvemos soluções novas. Mostramos que os mesmos potenciais que possuem solução exata em duas gerações, também possuem em três. Com o formalismo proposto nesta dissertação para resolução da equação de evolução dos neutrinos na matéria, fica descartada a existência de outros potenciais, que não os aqui discutidos, com solução analítica em termos de funções que são obtidas como casos especiais ou limites da função hipergeométrica generalizada. / In this project we realized a study about the formulas of neutrino oscillation probabilities in matter in two and three generations. We studied the neutrino oscillation phenomenology and its experiments. We reviewed all the analytic expressions to the exact and aproximate solutions known at the literature to the conversion probabilities, as well as we have developed new ones. We showed that the same potentials which have exact solutions in two generations, also have exact solutions in three generations. By using the proposed formalism in this dissertation to the resolution of the evolution equation of neutrinos in matter, we ruled out the existence of other potentials not discussed here that have exact solution in terms of the special functions that are special cases or limits of the generalized hypergeometric function.
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Calibration Hardware Research and Development for SNO+Walker, Matthew 02 June 2014 (has links)
The SNO+ experiment is a kilo-tonne scale liquid scintillator detector located at
SNOLAB in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. As the successor to the Sudbury Neutrino
Observatory, SNO+ will use linear alkylbenzene (LAB) as the scintillator to study
neutrinos. During the solar phase,
ux measurements will be made of low energy
neutrinos originating in the Sun. In another phase, 800 kg of tellurium will loaded
into the scintillator to search for neutrinoless double beta decay. Measurements will
also be made of neutrinos coming from nearby nuclear reactors and from inside Earth's
mantle and crust.
To enable these multiple physics goals, a sensitive calibration procedure must be
carried out in order to fully understand the detector. The optical and energy responses
of the detector will be measured with calibration sources deployed throughout the
acrylic vessel. These sources must be connected to the observatory deck above the
vessel by gas capillaries, optical bres, and signal wires housed in specially designed
submersible umbilical cables. The design and fabrication of these umbilical cables
is presented. Development work on a deployed radon calibration source will also be
described. / Thesis (Master, Physics, Engineering Physics and Astronomy) -- Queen's University, 2014-05-30 15:56:19.906
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Recherche de neutrino stérile par l'expérience STEREO : optimisation du blindage et calibration de l'échelle d'énergie / Search for a sterile neutrino with the STEREO experiment : shielding optimisation and energy calibrationKandzia, Felix 11 December 2017 (has links)
La recherche de neutrinos stériles et légers est, à l’heure actuelle, l’un des enjeux majeurs de laphysique des neutrinos. Une indication de leur existence résulte de l’anomalie des antineutrinosde réacteur, qui découle du déficit de 6% entre les taux prédits et les taux observéspar les expériences à courte distance de réacteurs. Ce déficit peut être interprété comme uneoscillation à courte distance des neutrinos. L’objectif de l’expérience STEREO, situé auprès duréacteur de recherche de l’Institut Laue Langevin (ILL), à Grenoble, France, est d’étudier cetteoscillation. La cible du détecteur de neutrinos est placée entre 8,9 et 11,1m du coeur compactdu réacteur d’ILL. Le détecteur consiste d’environ 2t d’un scintillateur liquide, dopé avec duGd. Le volume actif est séparé dans le sens de la longueur en six cellules. Les antineutrinos sontdétectés par la désintégration bêta inverse, où ils interagissent avec un proton libre (ion H+) etproduisent un positron et un neutron. Les deux particules sont détectées dans le scintillateurpar une coïncidence retardée où le positron crée un signal prompt et le neutron est capturéaprès un temps de modération. La lumière produite par le scintillateur est mesurée par lesphotomultiplicateurs (PM). Le détecteur est complété par un“gamma catcher” qui entoure la cible et par un veto à muons.Ce manuscrit présente des études concernant la préparation et la mise en exploitation del’expérience STEREO. La conception du blindage magnétique des PM a été menée sur la basede simulations par éléments finis afin d’examiner différentes options, d’étudier en détail lesperformances de l’option retenue ainsi que de déterminer la qualité nécessaire des matériauxutilisés. Sur la base de ces études, la collaboration a retenu un plan de blindage en deuxcouches: une couche de fer doux à l’extérieur, couvrant le détecteur et le veto à muons, et unecouche de mu-métal autour de la cible. Ce blindage réduit les champs magnétiques externes à laposition des PM de la cible à moins de 60μT pour toutes les configurations connues de champsexternes. Ceci réduit à moins de 2% une variation de l’amplification des PM induite par deschangements des champs magnétiques.D’autre part, des études du bruit de fond sur le site de STEREO ont été menées. Unecartographie du bruit de fond du rayonnement gamma a été effectuée avec des détecteurs augermanium et un scintillateur NaI, afin de valider l’efficacité du blindage installé. Uneestimation du taux de bruit de fond est présentée et comparée au taux mesuré avec STEREO.Dans l’état actuel de l’analyse des données, le bruit de fond de coïncidences fortuites est inférieurau bruit de fond corrélé induit par les muons cosmiques. Après une première phase d’exploitationde STEREO, un “doigt de gant” en fin de vie situé à l’avant de STEREO a dû être retiré.Un bouchon était adapté à l’extrémité de ce doigt de gant afin de réduire le bruit du fondpour STEREO. Ce dispositif n’ayant pas pu être réinstallé à la suite l’enlèvement du doigt degant, un nouveau blindage a été proposé par l’ILL. Une série des simulations neutroniques etphotoniques (MCNP) a été effectué pour étudier l’effet de ce changement sur le bruit de fondautour de STEREO et pour décider si le blindage proposé était suffisant. Les deux scénariosavant et après l’enlèvement ont été comparés et selon cette simulation, la situation du bruit defond devrait être améliorée.Enfin une procédure a été proposée et appliquée pour analyser les données de calibration del’échelle d’énergie de STEREO. La procédure a été élaborée pour être applicable pour toutes lessources de calibration disponibles et pour minimiser les incertitudes systématiques. Le résultatpeut être utilisé pour ajuster les paramètres de la simulation Geant4 du détecteur développée parla collaboration, par comparaison avec des données mesurées et après pour déterminer l’échellede l’énergie avec la précision requise de < 2%. / Light sterile neutrinos are currently a topic actively discussed in neutrino physics. Oneindication of their possible existence and their participation in neutrino oscillations is the ReactorAntineutrino Anomaly, which states a deficit of about 6% between predicted and observedantineutrino fluxes in short baseline reactor neutrino experiments. The STEREO experimentaddresses this anomaly by searching for neutrino oscillations at baselines of 8.9-11.1m from thecompact core of the research reactor of the Institut Laue Langevin (ILL), Grenoble, France. Forthis purpose a Gd-loaded liquid scintillator detector was designed with an active target massof about 2 t. The target volume is subdivided in six optically separated cells along the line ofpropagation of the neutrinos. The electron antineutrinos emitted from the reactor are detectedvia the inverse beta decay on hydrogen nuclei, where a positron and a neutron are created. Thesetwo particles are detected in the scintillator in delayed coincidence, with the prompt signal fromthe positron and a delayed signal from neutron capture. The scintillation light created in theprocesses is read out by photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) on top of the detector cells. The detectoris completed by a gamma catcher and a muon veto.This manuscript covers parts of the preparation and the commissioning of the STEREOexperiment. As basis for the design process of the magnetic shielding for STEREO’s PMTsa series of finite element simulations was performed. The studies of different general layoutsand required material qualities as well as of details of the final design are summarised. Underconsideration of these studies the collaboration opted for a shielding design, a double layer setupwith an outer soft iron and inner mumetal layer, which has the required shielding efficiency toreduce the magnetic field at the position of the detector PMTs below 60 μT for all known externalmagnetic field configurations. This limits the maximum PMT gain change due to variations ofthe external magnetic fields to < 2%.Furthermore different studies have been performed concerning the on-site background situation.A mapping of the-ray background was conducted with high purity germanium detectorsand a NaI scintillator detector, in order to validate the efficiency of the installed shielding. Thefocus lied on the characterisation of the count rate in the neutron capture energy window. Anestimation of the background rate is presented and compared to the rate obtained in STEREO.At the current state of the analysis the background of accidental coincidences in STEREO is aminor contribution compared to the muon induced correlated background. In addition a seriesof MCNP simulations was performed to determine the impact of a beamtube removal in thevicinity of STEREO on the overall reactor-related background situation. The beamtube wasclosed by a dedicated shielding, optimised for background reduction for STEREO, which couldnot be reinstalled after removal of the tube. A new shielding at the end of the former beamtubewas proposed by the ILL. Its shielding effect was studied with MCNP and compared tothe previous configuration in order to assess whether the new shielding suffices or needs to beimproved. According to these simulations the background situation is expected to improve.Finally a procedure is proposed and applied for the analysis of the energy calibration ofthe STEREO detector. The procedure is designed to be applicable to all available calibrationsources and to minimise systematic uncertainties. It can be used to adjust parameters in theexisting Geant4-based simulation of the detector, developed by the collaboration, by comparisonto measured data and later to determine the energy scale with the required precision of < 2%.
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Estudo analítico das probabilidades de oscilação de neutrinos na matéria em três gerações / Analytical study of the neutrino iscillation probalities in the matter in three generationsCaio Augusto Pelegrina Del Bianco Licciardi 09 August 2007 (has links)
Neste projeto realizamos um estudo sobre as fórmulas de probabilidades de oscilação de neutrinos na matéria em duas e três gerações. Estudamos extensivamente a fenomenologia e os experimentos de oscilação de neutrinos. Além de rever todas as expressões analíticas para as soluções exatas e aproximadas conhecidas na literatura para as probabilidades de conversão, também desenvolvemos soluções novas. Mostramos que os mesmos potenciais que possuem solução exata em duas gerações, também possuem em três. Com o formalismo proposto nesta dissertação para resolução da equação de evolução dos neutrinos na matéria, fica descartada a existência de outros potenciais, que não os aqui discutidos, com solução analítica em termos de funções que são obtidas como casos especiais ou limites da função hipergeométrica generalizada. / In this project we realized a study about the formulas of neutrino oscillation probabilities in matter in two and three generations. We studied the neutrino oscillation phenomenology and its experiments. We reviewed all the analytic expressions to the exact and aproximate solutions known at the literature to the conversion probabilities, as well as we have developed new ones. We showed that the same potentials which have exact solutions in two generations, also have exact solutions in three generations. By using the proposed formalism in this dissertation to the resolution of the evolution equation of neutrinos in matter, we ruled out the existence of other potentials not discussed here that have exact solution in terms of the special functions that are special cases or limits of the generalized hypergeometric function.
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Measurement of muon antineutrino disappearance in the T2K ExperimentMyslik, Jordan William 22 July 2016 (has links)
The T2K ("Tokai-to-Kamioka") Experiment is a long-baseline neutrino oscillation experiment. A beam of primarily muon neutrinos (in neutrino beam mode) or antineutrinos (in antineutrino beam mode) is produced at the J-PARC ("Japan Proton Accelerator Research Complex") facility. The near detector (ND280), located 280 m from the proton beam target, measures a large event rate of neutrino interactions in the unoscillated beam, while the far detector, Super-Kamiokande, 295 km away, searches for the signatures of neutrino oscillation. This dissertation describes the analyses of data at ND280 and Super-Kamiokande leading to T2K's first results from running in antineutrino beam mode: a measurement of muon antineutrino disappearance. The measured values of the antineutrino oscillation parameters (Normal Hierarchy) are (sin²(θ̅₂₃), |Δm̅²₃₂|) = (0.450, 2.518 x 10ˉ³ eV²/c⁴), with 90% 1D confidence intervals 0.327 < sin²(θ̅₂₃) < 0.692 and 2.03 x 10ˉ³ eV²/c⁴ < |Δm̅²₃₂| < 2.92 x 10ˉ³ eV²/c⁴. These results are consistent with past measurements of these parameters by other experiments, and with T2K's past measurements of muon neutrinos. / Graduate
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Les expériences Nucifer et Stéréo : étude des antineutrinos de réacteurs à courte distance / The Nucifer and Stereo experiments : a study of reactor antineutrinos at short baselinePequignot, Maxime 30 September 2015 (has links)
Interagissant très peu avec leur environnement, les neutrinos peuvent aujourd'hui être clairement détectés à l'aide d'une technologie largement éprouvée reposant sur l'utilisation de liquide scintillant et de photo-multiplicateurs. Les progrès réalisés ces dernières années permettent de réduire la taille et la complexité des détecteurs et laissent ainsi entrevoir les premières applications à ces particules. Première expérience placée à 7,2 m d'un coeur de réacteur nucléaire, le détecteur Nucifer démontre la possibilité de compter les antineutrinos venant du combustible à cette faible distance induisant un environnement très défavorable en terme de bruits de fond. Dans cette thèse, nous présentons l'analyse ayant permis de rejeter les différents bruits de fond venant du réacteur et de son circuit de désactivation mais aussi des muons atmosphériques. Une prédiction du taux d'antineutrinos avec différentes simulations Monte-Carlo a également été réalisée et se trouve en accord avec le taux mesuré dans la limite des incertitudes statistiques et systématiques. Sur près d'un an de prise de données, nous avons pu suivre l'évolution en puissance du réacteur Osiris. Une étude de sensibilité a montré que la présence de plutonium dans le coeur d'Osiris était détectable à 95 % CL dès que cet isotope contribue à hauteur de 10 % de la masse fissile (1,5 kg dans Osiris). En outre, le détecteur a montré une grande stabilité tout au long de la prise de données prouvant que le contrôle à distance des réacteurs nucléaires est possible. Cette expérience ouvre donc la voie à de nouveaux modes de contrôle des réacteurs nucléaires pour les autorités de sûreté. Dans le cadre des travaux sur les spectres d'antineutrinos émis par les réacteurs nucléaires, un déficit a récemment été mis en évidence dans le taux des antineutrinos mesurés pour les expériences à courte distance des réacteurs. Ce déficit, appelé anomalie réacteur, pourrait trouver son origine dans une nouvelle oscillation à travers un état stérile du neutrino à l'électronvolt. L'expérience Stéréo a pour but de trancher sur l'existence ou non de cette oscillation en se plaçant à 10 m du réacteur nucléaire de l'ILL. En observant une distorsion à la fois en énergie et en distance, le détecteur permettra en effet d'apporter une conclusion solide sur ce phénomène. Nous revenons ici sur le développement du projet et sur les différents choix technologiques réalisés pour améliorer la sensibilité de l'expérience. Une attention particulière est portée sur l'estimation des bruits de fond provenant du réacteur nucléaire ainsi que des expériences voisines utilisant des faisceaux de neutrons. Des mesures expérimentales alliées à des simulations ont permis de quantifier les flux de rayons gammas et de neutrons ainsi que leur direction afin de prévoir les blindages nécessaires. Enfin, nous présentons les performances du prototype correspondant à une cellule du détecteur final. / In spite of a faint interaction with their environment, neutrinos can be now clearly detected thanks to a proven technology based on liquid scintillators and photomultiplier tubes. The advances made these last years allow to reduce the size and the complexity of the detectors and therefore naturally lead to the first applications with these particles. As the first experiment to be placed at 7.2 m of a nuclear core, the Nucifer detector demonstrates the possibility of counting antineutrinos coming from the nuclear fuel at such a short baseline despite the very unfavourable environment in term of the background noises. In this thesis, we present an analysis which rejects the various background noises coming from the reactor and its deactivation circuit but also from the atmospheric muons. A prediction of the antineutrino rate with several Monte-Carlo simulations was also performed and is in good agreement with the measured rate, within statistical and systematic uncertainties. After nearly one year of data taking, we were able to follow the power evolution of the reactor Osiris. A sensibility study showed that the presence of plutonium in the Osiris core was detectable at 95 % CL as soon as this isotope contributes at the level of 10 % of the fissile mass (1,5 kg in Osiris). Besides, the detector was very stable throughout the data taking proving that the remote control of nuclear reactor with a neutrino detector is possible. Thus, this experiment opens the way to new control modes of nuclear reactors by the nuclear safety authorities. As part of the work on the antineutrino spectra emitted by nuclear reactors, a deficit was recently highlighted in the observed antineutrino rate for the experiments at short baseline. This deficit, called the reactor anomaly, could be explain by a new oscillation into a sterile state of the neutrino at the electronvolt scale. The Stereo experiment aims to test the existence of this oscillation by performing measurements 10 m away from the ILL nuclear reactor. By observing a distortion pattern of the energy and distance dependence of the neutrino spectrum, the detector will be able to provide a solid proof of this phenomenon. We present here the project development and the various technological choices that we have done to improve the experiment sensibility. The estimation of the background noise coming from the nuclear reactor as well as the nearby experiments using neutron beams has been performed with on-site measurements and simulations to design the shielding of the detector. Eventually we present the performances of the prototype which corresponds to one cell of the final detector.
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Etude et impact du bruit de fond corrélé pour la mesure de l'angle thêta_13 avec l'expérience Double ChoozRemoto, Alberto 05 October 2012 (has links) (PDF)
L'expérience Double Chooz utilise les antineutrinos émis par la centrale nucléaire de Chooz (France) pour mesurer l'angle de mélange θ13. La mesure précise de la disparition des antineutrinos se fera en utilisant deux détecteurs placés à différentes distances du réacteur. La prise de données avec le détecteur lointain se fait depuis avril 2011 alors que le détecteur proche est en cours de construction. Les données prise avec le détecteur lointain entre le 13 avril 2011 et le 30 mars 2012 ont été analysées. Une indication de la disparition d'antineutrinos électroniques, en accord avec l'hypothèse d'oscillation des neutrinos, a été trouvée. La valeur du paramètre de mélange mesurée est sin2 (2θ13) est 0,109 ± 0,030 (stat.) ± 0,025 (syst.). Cette thèse présente une description précise de l'expérience Double Chooz, avec une attention particulière portée sur le détecteur lointain et son système d'acquisition. Le principal objectif de la thèse est l'étude précise du bruit de fond corrélé affectant la sélection des antineutrinos et son impact sur la mesure de le paramètre de mélange. Une description générale du scénario expérimental actuel visant à la caractérisation de l'oscillation des neutrinos est également fournie, en se concentrant sur les résultats récents obtenus dans ce domaine.
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Introdução à fenomenologia da oscilação de neutrinos, no vácuo e na matéria / Introduction to neutrino oscillation's fenomenology, in vacuum and matterValdiviesso, Gustavo do Amaral 16 March 2004 (has links)
Orientador: Marcelo Moraes Guzzo / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Fisica Gleb Wataghin / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-09T11:03:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1
Valdiviesso_GustavodoAmaral_M.pdf: 1768172 bytes, checksum: d1861e9e1805a2a55abc030dde4bf22b (MD5)
Previous issue date: 2004 / Resumo: O objetivo deste trabalho é produzir um texto didático que sirva como base para alunos de física, ao ingressarem na área da fenomenologia de neutrinos. Introduz-se o modelo de mistura de neutrinos no vácuo, baseado no conceito de superposição de estados. Mostra-se que esta hipótese leva ao fenômeno da oscilação de sabor, o qual se propõe ser uma solução para o problema do neutrino solar. Mostra-se que a oscilação que ocorre no vácuo entre o Sol e a Terra não pode explicar os dados experimentais, sendo necessária a inclusão dos efeitos da matéria solar. O meio solar leva a uma alteração nas previsões devido a efeitos de ressonância. O conjunto de fenômenos que ocorrem devido a presença e à distribuição do meio solar, chamado efeito MSW, leva à verdadeira solução do problema do neutrino solar. Faz-se um ajuste simples no modelo, encontrando o melhor ajuste aos dados de SuperKamiokande. Com o modelo ajustado, mostra-se a concordância com os dados de Homestake / Abstract: The subject of this work is to produce a didactic text that can be used by physics students as a basis when incoming on the neutrinos phenomenology area. We introduce the neutrinos mixing model in vacuum, based on the concept of state superposition. We show that this hypothesis leads to avor oscillation phenomenon, the one is proposed to be a solution to the solar neutrino problem. We show that vacuum oscillations between the Sun and the Earth cannot explain the experimental data, making necessary the inclusion of solar matter effects. The solar medium leads to modifications on the predictions because of resonance effects. The set of phenomenon that takes place due to the presence and to the distribution of solar medium, called MSW effect, leads to the real solution of the solar neutrino problem. We make a simple fit on the models parameters, finding the best fit to de SuperKamiokande data set. With the model fitted, we show that it agrees with Homestake data / Mestrado / Teoria Geral das Particulas e Campos / Mestre em Física
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Exploitation of pulse shape analysis for correlated background rejection and ortho-positronium identification in the Double Chooz experiment / Exploitation de l'analyse des formes d'impulsion pour la réjection du background correlée et l'identification de l'ortho-positronium dans l'expérience Double ChoozMinotti, Alessandro 29 October 2015 (has links)
La mesure récente de l'angle de mélange theta-13, à laquelle l'expérience Double Chooz contribue, a ouvert la voie aux futures expériences de la physique des neutrinos. Dans ce manuscrit, la caractérisation de certains bruits de l'expérience sont décrits. Les muons cosmiques qui s'arrêtent et se désintègrent dans le détecteur sont mal reconstruits, résultant en distorsion de la distribution temporelle des signaux laquelle peut être utilisée pour identifier ce type de fond. Les neutrons rapides créés par spallation par les muons cosmiques produisent de nombreux protons de recul qui peuvent entraîner un décalage dans la distribution temporelle des signaux et ainsi être identifiés. Ces distributions temporelles ont aussi été utilisées pour identifier la formation de l'état d'orthopositronium en observant et en mesurant un délai entre l'ionisation du positron et l'annihilation de celui-ci, pouvant permettre une séparation positron-électron. / The measurement of the theta-13 mixing angle, to which the Double Chooz experiment contributed, paves the way to future findings in neutrino physics. In this manuscript, we describe the characterization of some Double Chooz backgrounds. Cosmic muons that stop and decay in the detector are characterized by anisotropic emission of the scintillation light, causing the vertex to be poorly reconstructed. The resulting pulse shape distortion can be used to tag and remove such background. Fast spallation neutrons producing multiple recoil protons may produce a similar distortion in the pulse shape and can also be tagged. Pulse shapes are also used to identify the formation of ortho-positronium. The tagging of such electron-positron bound state is made possible by the induced distortion in the pulse shape due to the delay in the positron annihilation, and can be used for an electron-positron separation.
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