Grain protein content (GPC) in wheat has been found to be regulated by the gene NAM-B1. Homologues to the NAM-B1 gene have been found in barley, HvNAM-1 and HvNAM-2. Previous studies have found that base mutations in the NAM-1 gene at base position 544 might have an impact on GPC. Previous studies also found that landrace of barley showed higher GPC than cultivated barley, indicating that plant improvement might have affected base mutations and therefore GPC. I wanted to study if there are any nutritional differences in Nordic barley and if those differences might correlate with haplotypes. Comparisons of barley varieties from four Nordic countries, and two varieties from the US used as low and high GPC controls, did not show any significant differences depending on their origin country and no differences regarding plant improvement status between the countries. When sequencing Nordic barley varieties, five haplotypes were found for the gene HvNAM-1, and two haplotypes for the gene HvNAM-2. A low polymorphism for both genes indicate a strong natural selection for the consensus haplotype which might be preferable for Nordic climate with a short growing season and cold temperatures. Even though it is not clear what is the cause of the low polymorphism in Nordic barley varieties, they showed a generally higher nutrient content than barley varieties of the high GPC and may be suitable for breeding for a yield with a high nutrient content.

The diploma thesis deals with the affect of tax exemption as a structural element of personal income tax at the rate of taxation in the Nordic countries. The first part of the analysis consists of a comparison of the structure of personal income tax in selected countries and an analysis of exempt income, with a focus on social benefits. The final analysis includes calculation of the rate of taxation for several types of households and several levels of income. The results are then compared across selected countries.

The radical rise of global temperatures has put high pressure on the environment, leading to societal pressure towards politicians to reverse the trend. In light of this environmental crisis, economists all over the world agree that carbon taxes are the most cost-effective instrument for reducing carbon emissions. This study uses difference-in-differences analysis to examine the treatment effect of a carbon tax implementation in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. Panel data from 24 OECD countries, between 1978 and 2004, is used throughout this study. This study has not found support that different levels of democracy and GDP per capita affect tax efficiency. Moreover, higher levels of urbanisation are seen to undermine the efficiency of a carbon tax, however, the result may be affected by confounding bias. Lastly, tax rate and tax coverage are both factors that seem to affect carbon tax efficiency.

Bakgrund: Nätmobbning har länge varit ett omfattande problem bland barn och ungdomar, särskilt i skolverksamheten. I och med den snabba utvecklingen av internet har mobbning börjat uttryckas i en ny domän, nämligen internet. Detta fenomen kallas för cybermobbning. Syfte: Syftet med följande uppsats är att undersöka upplevelsen av nätmobbning samt vilka strategier som finns för att bekämpa nätmobbning. Metod: För att besvara det som efterfrågas i uppsatsen har en litteraturstudie av kvalitativ ansats använts. Resultat: Resultatet visar att barn och ungdomar som utsatts för mobbning kan få bestående problem, både socialt och intellektuellt. Slutsats: Det främjande arbetet bör innehålla information om konsekvenserna av nätmobbning. Vuxna som är uppväxta under andra omständigheter där internet inte varit lika omfattande i vardagen bör även få en vidgad uppfattning av nätmobbning. / Background: Cyberbullying has long been a problem among children and young people and especially in school activities. With the rapid development of the internet, bullying has begun to be expressed in a new arena, namely the internet. This is often called cyberbullying. Purpose: The purpose of the following paper is to investigate the experience of cyberbullying and what possible strategies exist to combat cyberbullying. Method: To answer the purpose, a literature review with qualitative approach has been used. Results: The results show that children and young people who have been bullied can have lasting problems, both socially and intellectually. Conclusion: The conclusion that can be drawn from the following study is that the promotion work should include information on the consequences of cyberbullying. Adults who grew up in other circumstances where the internet has not been as extensive in everyday life should also have a broader perception of cyberbullying.

The education level has proven to be a good predictor of a range of important outcomes. However, despite substantial research, there are still areas to further explore and as far as the author is aware of, a study comparing education effects between different regions has not been conducted. The aim of this paper is to link previous theory and research and use it to examine effects of the education level on four different areas; politics, health and well-being, social trust and nationalism and immigration. Specifically, focus is on exploring potential differences regarding education effects between the Nordic countries and other countries in Europe. The study was conducted using a quantitative method by analyzing data from European Social Survey covering the period 2012–2016. By adding interaction terms to the regression models this study indicated that the education effects were robust, with higher education levels being associated with higher trust and political interest, better health and well-being, and with less political cynicism and less negative attitudes towards immigration. The study also identified that the education effects differ between the Nordics compared to other European countries. Analysis of the data showed that the education effects related to politics and nationalism and immigration were stronger in the Nordic countries compared to other countries in Europe. In contrast, education effects related to health and well-being and social trust were stronger in other countries in Europe compared to the Nordics.

Bakgrund: En svensk sjuksköterskeutbildning innefattar både teori och praktik och ger en yrkesexamen som sjuksköterska. Sjuksköterskan har huvudansvaret för området omvårdnad och ansvarar således för att bedriva en patientsäker vård. Benners (1993) transitionsteori beskriver hur hela yrkeslivet är en lärandeprocess där sjuksköterskan genomgår fem olika steg från novis till expert. Syfte: Att beskriva nyutexaminerade sjuksköterskors upplevelser av transitionen från student till yrkesverksam sjuksköterska. Metod: Studien genomfördes som en kvalitativ litteraturöversikt med induktiv ansats, där 14 artiklar inkluderades i resultatet. Resultat: Sammanställningen av artiklarna resulterade i tre huvudkategorier med flertalet subkategorier. Huvudkategorier: Ansvar, Brist i förberedelser och Den nya professionen. Slutsats: Att gå från student till yrkesverksam sjuksköterska var en skrämmande upplevelse samtidigt som de nyutexaminerade sjuksköterskorna var upprymda över att påbörja sina karriärer. Utbildningens kvalitet samt stöd från kollegor påverkade hur de nyutexaminerade sjuksköterskorna upplevde transitionen. Tydligare kommunikation mellan lärosäte och verksamhet behövs, samt att de nyutexaminerade sjuksköterskorna behöver ta ansvar för sitt eget lärande. Kontinuerligt stöd från mer erfarna kollegor behövs för att underlätta transitionen. Nyckelord: Kvalitativ, Norden, stöd, transition, överväldigande. / Background: A Swedish nursing education includes both theory and clinical placement and results in a bachelors degree. A nurse has the main responsibility for the nursing practice and is thus responsible for providing patient-safe care. Benner's (1993) transition theory describes the entire professional life as a learning process where a nurse goes through five stages from novice to expert. Aim: To describe newly graduated nurses’ experiences of the transition from student to registered nurse. Method: A qualitative litterature review with an inductive approach was conducted where 14 articles were included. Findings: The findings in reviwed articles were categorized into three main categories with multiple subcategories. Main Categories: Responsibility, Lack of preparation and The new profession. Conclusions: To transition from student to registered nurse was exciting but terrifying for the newly graduated nurses. The quality of given education as well as support from experiened colleagues affected how the newly graduated nurses experienced their transition. Better communication between work place and university is needed. The newly graduated nurses must also take responsibility for their own education. Continuous support from experienced colleagues is also needed to facilitate the transition. Keywords: Nordic countries, overwhelming, qualitative, support, transition.

In recent years, have the focus on Incels increased due to various deadly attacks that have been associated with extreme misogynistic content. This study aims to discuss current online prevention methods’ applicability with respect to Incels and to comprehend if online prevention methods can mitigate future attacks in Nordic countries. To provide knowledge of current online prevention methods a systematic literature review in accordance with the PRISMA was conducted. Several databases e.g., Google Scholar and PsycINFO were searched for articles published in peer-reviewed international journals. Ten articles which included online moderation measures regarding extremist content and Incels were admitted. Additionally, a non-systematic review was conducted in relation to reports regarding Incels published by Nordic organizations. Four reports were found. The Routine Activity Theory was then applied to the results from the papers found in the systematic and the non-systematic review. One limitation of the review is that only a few articles have been included which makes generalizability difficult. Numerous methods can be applied regarding Incels when it comes to online prevention measures. However, current methods seem to consist of a duplexity, where the moderation methods influence different SoMe platforms, but also create echo chambers on encrypted platforms where an increase of Incel radicalization materializes. To mitigate future attacks the use of proactive online prevention methods, e.g., detection tools and connectivity tools should be used by different platforms and law enforcement, as the capable guardian, to allocate imminent threats from Incels.

The period 2015-2020 has remained limitless in terms of missing data on crime and immigration in the Nordic countries, starting from the number of irregular and undocumented migrants and asylum seekers, continuing with the underrepresented immigrant statistics in crime. This paper consists of a complex understanding of immigration processes across the Nordic region, establishing narrow themes associated with crime and immigration. The findings of this paper presented five essential links to the criminality among the immigrant population in the Nordic countries during 2015-2020, that were compiled from the majority of the current available studies in this research field. At this point, the paper represents official data from the Nordic countries and a narrow literature review of recent studies, which depicted immigrants as more often suspected of crimes compared to the ethnic populations, assuming that it could have established a false social identity of an individual with foreign background. The reason of that supposition is explained by the findings on migrants to be overrepresented in crime, biased “immigrant beliefs” and yet evident immigrant labelling.

Researchers have dedicated considerable work to explaining components to excess stock market returns. Recently, Atanasov et al. (2020) managed to explain some of this variance in the US stock markets with a cyclical consumption variable. We have applied their model into the Nordic countries and compared it to a second model containing additional control variables. From the analysis, we find that cyclical consumption is able to explain excess stock market returns across five different h-quarter ahead excess returns. However, results are not consistent across countries. The extended model improves the explanatory capabilities of the model only up to two-year ahead excess returns. The cyclical consumption measure is also able to predict excess returns better than an historical average model. The findings in this paper are robust to out-of-sample predictability analysis and to a different measure of consumption and returns.

The following thesis deals with two primary matters. The first being the effort of Estonian politicians to change how Estonia's regional belonging is viewed by other countries before the admission into the European Union. These efforts can be illustrated by political actions whose aim was to create the image of Estonia as a Nordic country. These efforts slightly diminished after the admission into the European Union although on some levels they can be still observed. Despite close cooperation Estonia isn't adequate member of Nordic countries to this day. This thesis aspires to explain reasons for these action of Estonian politicians and why they were left off after the admission into EU. The second matter being the region of Nordic countries. Collective Nordic identity helped establish transnational cooperation among involved nations which represents one of the essential characteristics of a Nordic country. The emphasis is on historical context of Nordic identity and the development of Nordic cooperation from its initiation until current state. First the thesis introduces a theoretical insight into the region matters. Consequently it deals with the first matter, the efforts to redefine Estonia as a Nordic country, which is followed by analysis of the concept of a Nordic country and Nordic...