This thesis establishes the earliest appearance of ground slate points at 50 locations throughout the Northwest Coast of North America. Ground slate points are a tool common among maritime hunter-gatherers, but rare among hunter-gatherers who utilize terrestrial subsistence strategies; ground slate points are considered one of the archaeological hallmarks of mid-to-late Holocene Northwest Coast peoples. The appearance of ground slate points in the archaeological record is frequently marked by a concurrent decline in the prevalence of flaked stone points, a phenomenon often referred to as "the ground slate transition." Until now, the specific timing of the appearance of these tools has been ill-defined, and a number of competing theories have arisen to explain the apparent preference for ground slate points over flaked points by prehistoric peoples. By drawing upon a sample of 94 artifact assemblages from 50 sites in Alaska, British Columbia, and Washington, I have constructed a database of artifacts counts, provenience information, and radiocarbon dates which allows for inter-site comparisons of the earliest appearance of the technology. My research has identified a general north to south trend in the appearance of slate points; which begin to appear in the archaeological record around 6,300 cal BP in southeast Alaska, to 2,900 cal BP in Puget Sound. There are notable exceptions to this pattern, however. Given that these data are drawn from both cultural resource management reports and academic literature, I have qualified these findings by addressing some of the common problems of making inter-site comparisons, such as the comparability of radiometric dates, which I address by undertaking a radiocarbon hygiene program. The chronology constructed here provides an important tool for evaluating theories about the ground slate transition, and thereby aiding in untangling the link between aquatic subsistence strategies and technological decision making.

The ideology of home—essentially the notion that "a woman's place is in the home"— tends to shape the expectations and assumptions of both men and women regarding the interests and abilities of women on the water. In "At Home Afloat: Gender and Domesticity in Northwest Coast Marine Travel Accounts," I analyze those expectations and their effects in a regional context. Reading accounts by female boat tourists between 1861 and 1990, I question the ways that gender influences the roles women play at sea, the spaces they occupy on boats, and the language they use to construct their experiences, their surroundings, and their contact with native peoples. In this dissertation I show women—traditionally forbidden in marine environments —participating in Northwest Coast steam tourism from its initiation, and influencing steamship company promotional language. I trace a history of women who enter the local recreational boating community and alter it with their home-making skills and their demand for "houseboats," and I map how domestic ideology can divide the built space of the boat into gender-specific territories. Women who labor in marine occupations (fishers, towboaters) cope with the limitations of a "masculine" environment. My work shows how female tourists, who typically cruise as "mates" with their captains/husbands, cope with these same limitations while bearing the added responsibility of answering to the patriarchal head of household; as a result, women who gain access to boats through their domestic abilities can be "ghettoized" in the galley. This project hypothesizes that "feminine discourse" (shaped by the Victorian cult of the home), together with the limitations of steamship transportation, led nineteenth-century female boat travellers to portray native women as "counterfeit ladies" and to seek homescapes in the mixed land/seascape. After the turn of the century-with the rise of the myth of the disappearing Indian, and the growing popularity of small-boat cruising—female boat tourists use feminine discourse to question their own position as outsider in the native world. Finally, I show that although literary works rely on seascape metaphors to symbolize woman's escape from the "social moorings" of gender expectations, these travellers tend to depict themselves in traditional domestic roles and find the waterscape largely "indescribable." Their accounts focus on "enfolding" nature into the ship's household, and emphasize female connections to the land.

The northern Cascadia subduction zone involves convergence of the Explorer Plate and northern part of the Juan de Fuca Plate with the North American Plate along a margin lying west of Vancouver Island, Canada. A wide accretionary complex which underlies the continental slope and shelf has been formed. Two allochthonous terranes, the Crescent Terrane of Eocene oceanic crustal volcanics and the Pacific Rim Terrane of Mesozoic melange sedimentary rocks and volcanics, lie against the Wrangellia Terrane backstop beneath the west coast of Vancouver Island and outcrop on the southern tip of the island. The intrusive Coast Plutonic Complex underlies the westernmost part of the British Columbia mainland east of Vancouver Island and marks the location of the historic and modern volcanic arcs. An integrated interpretation of geophysical and geological data has been conducted for the northern Cascadia subduction zone. Regionally extensive gravity and magnetic anomaly data have formed the basis of the interpretation, while surface geology, physical properties, and seismic reflection, refraction, heat flow, borehole, magnetotelluric, and seismicity data have provided constraints on structure and composition. Horizontal gradient and vertical derivative maps of the potential field data were calculated to provide additional control on the locations of major faults and lithologic boundaries. Iterative forward modelling of the gravity and magnetic anomaly data was conducted along three offshore multichannel seismic reflection lines and their onshore extensions. The two-and-a-half-dimensional (2.5-D) models extended from the ocean basin across the accretionary complex and Vancouver Island to the mainland along lines perpendicular to the major structural trends of the margin and revealed lateral changes in the location of several structural components along the length of the margin. The interpretations were extended laterally by moving the original models to adjacent parallel positions and perturbing them to satisfy the new anomaly profile data and other constraints. The models thus formed were moved to the next position and the process repeated until a total of eleven models was developed across the margin. A twelfth line across a gravity anomaly high on southern Vancouver Island was independently modelled to examine the source of this feature. An average density model for the southern half of the convergent margin was constructed by averaging the models and profiles for seven lines at 10 km spacings. This process removed anomalies due to small source bodies and concentrated on the larger features. Finally, a regional density structural model was developed by linearly interpolating between all eleven cross-margin lines to construct a block model which could then be 'sliced' open to examine the internal structure of the margin at any location. The final models allow the Pacific Rim and Crescent Terrane positions to be extended along the offshore margin from their mapped locations. The Pacific Rim Terrane appears to be continuous and close to the coastline along the length of Vancouver Island, while the Crescent Terrane either terminates halfway along the margin or is buried at a depth great enough to suppress its magnetic signature. The location of the Westcoast Fault, separating the Pacific Rim and Wrangellia Terranes, has been interpreted to lie west of Barkley Sound at a position 15 km west of its previously interpreted position. Beneath southern Vancouver Island and Juan de Fuca Strait, the Crescent Terrane appears to have been uplifted into an anticlinal structure, bringing high density lower crustal or upper mantle material close to the surface and thereby causing the observed gravity anomaly high. The western part of the Coast Plutonic Complex has been interpreted as a thin lower density layer extending from its surface contact with Wrangellia to a position 20 to 30 km further east where the unit rapidly thickens and represents the main bulk of the batholith. The complexity of the thermal regime and its effects on density in this region allows for other interpretations. Finally, a comparison of the models along the length of the margin reveals that the crust of Vancouver Island appears to thin toward the north above the shallower Explorer Plate and the complex low - high density banding used in the southern Vancouver Island models is replaced with a single high density unit on the northernmost line. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

The ideology of home—essentially the notion that "a woman's place is in the home"— tends to shape the expectations and assumptions of both men and women regarding the interests and abilities of women on the water. In "At Home Afloat: Gender and Domesticity in Northwest Coast Marine Travel Accounts," I analyze those expectations and their effects in a regional context. Reading accounts by female boat tourists between 1861 and 1990, I question the ways that gender influences the roles women play at sea, the spaces they occupy on boats, and the language they use to construct their experiences, their surroundings, and their contact with native peoples. In this dissertation I show women—traditionally forbidden in marine environments —participating in Northwest Coast steam tourism from its initiation, and influencing steamship company promotional language. I trace a history of women who enter the local recreational boating community and alter it with their home-making skills and their demand for "houseboats," and I map how domestic ideology can divide the built space of the boat into gender-specific territories. Women who labor in marine occupations (fishers, towboaters) cope with the limitations of a "masculine" environment. My work shows how female tourists, who typically cruise as "mates" with their captains/husbands, cope with these same limitations while bearing the added responsibility of answering to the patriarchal head of household; as a result, women who gain access to boats through their domestic abilities can be "ghettoized" in the galley. This project hypothesizes that "feminine discourse" (shaped by the Victorian cult of the home), together with the limitations of steamship transportation, led nineteenth-century female boat travellers to portray native women as "counterfeit ladies" and to seek homescapes in the mixed land/seascape. After the turn of the century-with the rise of the myth of the disappearing Indian, and the growing popularity of small-boat cruising—female boat tourists use feminine discourse to question their own position as outsider in the native world. Finally, I show that although literary works rely on seascape metaphors to symbolize woman's escape from the "social moorings" of gender expectations, these travellers tend to depict themselves in traditional domestic roles and find the waterscape largely "indescribable." Their accounts focus on "enfolding" nature into the ship's household, and emphasize female connections to the land. / Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies / Graduate

The biogeographical pattern of the brown macroalgal genus Sargassum as well as the phylogeography of selected Sargassum spp. along NW Pacific coast were elucidated using analytical biogeographical and comparative phylogeographical tools. / To investigate the effect of freshwater outflow from Yangtze and Yellow Rivers in eastern China in shaping the genetic population structure of Sargassum spp., a comparative phylogeographic study was conducted on four closely related Sargassum species showing either continuous (Sargassum thunbergii and S. muticum ) or discontinuous (S. hemihyllum and S. fusiforme) distribution patterns along the Chinese coast. The results showed discontinuously distributed species to exhibit more haplotypes (e.g. four in TrnW_I spacer) among their populations than those with continuous distribution (two in TrnW_I spacer) pattern. Little or no population differentiation is revealed in species with a continuous distribution. Their occurrences in the brackish Bohai region may be attributed to the presence of inherited physiochemical traits that allow them to tolerate lower salinity waters in estuaries. The discontinuously distributed species, however, exhibited a deep genetic divergence among populations, as revealed by various genetic markers. There are two main lineages of S. fusiforme based on ITS2 and TrnW_I sequences, but the geographical region associated with this genetic break between the two lineages in eastern and southwestern Japan is different from that of S. hemiphyllum. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) results indicate that the maintenance of the population structure of S. fusiforme appears not to be correlated with the outflow of the two rivers. For S. hemphyllum, reduced salinity as the suspected genetic barrier was investigated directly in the laboratory to elucidate its effect on the growth and survival of S. hemiphyllum var. chinense . Statistically significant difference was observed in the relative growth rate (calculated based on wet weight) of branches cultured under different salinities, with the optimal growth under salinity level of 33 ppt. The lethal limit of vegetative growth was between 0 and 10 ppt. Germlings cultured in 15 ppt attained the highest survivorship. The optimal growth of the germlings occurred at 25 ppt, while the lowest lethal limit was within the range of 0 ppt and 5 ppt. Germlings reared under low salinity were deficient in rhizoid development, making them highly unlikely to grow into large thallus in the natural environment with strong waves. Compared with the optimal and lethal salinity level of S. mutium, the lethal limits of both vegetative branches and germlings of the two species are comparable. The optimal growth of branches of S. muticum occurred under salinity level of 27 ppt, in contrast to the optimal salinity level of S. hemiphyllum at 33 ppt. This could have explained the absence of S. hemiphyllum in brackish water and support the suggestion that river discharge serves as a barrier for the exchange of genetic materials among its populations. (Abstract shortened by UMI.). / Two allopatrically distributed varieties of S. hemiphyllum, v. chinense and v. hemiphyllum, are genetically distinct in terms of their internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) and Rubisco spacer. The genetic break between these two varieties, with v. chinense distributed in southern Chinese coast and v. hemiphyllum in Japan and Korea, is situated in a region that includes Bohai, Yellow Sea and East China Sea, all of which were heavily influenced by the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers in China. An introgression of the mitochondrial (Mt) genome from v. chinense to v. hemiphyllum, possibly mediated by the Kuroshio Current, is evident based on the Mt marker TrnW_I spacer. Hybridization between the two varieties may still be ongoing since the concerted evolution of ITS2 is not yet saturated in the Korean population located geographically in-between the distribution of the two varieties. In contrast, no variation in ITS2 and Rubisco spacer is revealed in S. muticum, including the native Asian populations and introduced populations in Europe and North America. There is a fixed one-nucleotide difference in the TrnW_I spacer, between the population in eastern Japan and all the other populations examined. This finding supports the earlier suggestion that the source of the introduced S. muticum populations is western and central Japan (Seto Inland Sea), where the germlings of S. muticum have been associated with the Pacific oysters previously introduced for farming in Canada, UK and France in earlier years. / Cheang, Chi Chiu. / Advisers: Put O. Ang; Ka-Hou Chu. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 73-09(E), Section: B. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2009. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 221-247). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, MI : ProQuest Information and Learning Company, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese.

The distribution of surface sediments on the northern Oregon continental shell is characterized by a nearshore sandy facies and an outer shelf muddy facies, separated by a mid-shelf zone of mixed sand and mud. Currents which have been measured at 130 centimeters above the bottom indicate that the distribution of the surface sediment is a reflection of the hydraulic regime. The strongest bottom currents which were measured were in the nearshore region at a depth of 36 meters. Here currents of over 40 cm/sec generated by surface waves are capable of placing the nearshore sands in suspension, where they are transported shoreward by the wave surge. At mid-shelf, in 90 meters of water, the bottom current veolcity ranges from zero to over 25 cm/sec, although the mean is normally about 10 cm/sec. The strongest currents at this depth are capable of eroding some of the fine sediments, but probably do not rework the older sediments which have been compacted. Currents which are similar in character to those at mid-shelf were observed at the shelf edge in a depth of 165 meters. A significant departure, however, is the difference in frequency where the most energy is found. At the shelf edge the dominant frequency was about four cpd whereas the dominant frequency at mid-shelf was two cpd or lower. The dominant frequencies indicate that tides are important in the generation of continental shelf bottom currents. The twelve - hour period is that of the semi-diurnal tide; the six-hour period is the second harmonic of the semi-diurnal component. No indication of surface wave influence was found at mid-shelf or shelf-edge depths. Profiles of turbidity made at four east-west transects of the continental shelf indicate suspended sediment transport occurs principally at three levels in the water column. An upper layer is at the level of the seasonal thermocline, a mid-water layer is located at the level of the permanent pycnocline, and the third layer is at the bottom. The surface layer is important in transporting suspended sediment of the Columbia River plume, although there is also a contribution to the surface layer from the surf zone by the process of diffusion of fine particles. The mid-water layer thickens vertically and becomes less intense seaward, indicating a nearshore source for the suspended material. This source is diffusion of fine particles from the surf zone at mid-water depths. The mid-water layer is located at the level of the permanent pycnocline. The layer is sub-parallel to the bottom over the shelf but becomes diffuse at the shelf edge. Sediment transport in the mid-water layer provides a mechanism by which sediment bypasses the outer shelf and upper slope area. The bottom layer receives its suspended material from erosion of the bottom, from the water column above, and from fine material moving seaward from the surf zone. The amount of eroded material contributed to the bottom layer depends on the bottom current strength and on the bottom roughness characteristics. Over a rough bottom the erosive power of a given bottom current is increased drastically. For this reason, the presence or absence of rippling is important to sediment transport on the shelf. The fine material of the bottom layer may concentrate by settling during quiescent periods, allowing low-density flows to initiate. Several time-series observations of turbidity indicate that the bottom layer thickens and thins in response to increases and decreases in current velocity. The mid-water layer migrated somewhat in a vertical direction, but its thickness and intensity remained nearly the same. The thickness and intensity of the upper layer responded to changes in the structure of the thermocline, becoming thick and dispersed when the upper part of the water column is mixed. A model of sediment transport proposes that mid-water and bottom currents transport suspended sediments diagonally across the shelf toward the south-southwest. The sediments of the Columbia River plume are also transported in a southerly direction in the surface waters. Relatively little deposition takes place on the shelf and upper slope, with the bulk of the sediments bypassing the shelf and depositing on the lower slope and continental rise. / Graduation date: 1972

This study examines the seasonal variability in temperature and salinity of the nearshore waters off Oregon and Northern California. Specifically, temperature and salinity variations during summer and winter were ana1yzed from data gathered at shore stations along the coast and from hydrographic data collected within 25 nautical miles of shore. At each of five shore stations a modal cell technique was used to establish the temperature-salinity characteristics of the "normal" water type existing at each station during summer and winter. A classification scheme was employed to determine what local processes were influential in altering the "normal" T-S characteristics at each station. In summer mixing with Columbia River plume water was found to be the major modifying process along the Northern Oregon coast. Off Central and Southern Oregon local heating and mixing with water from the shelf/slope region were found to be most influential. In winter dilution due to precipitation and subsequent runoff is the major modifying factor along the entire coast except off Northern Oregon where mixing with shelf/slope waters is slightly more influential. The temperature and salinity structure of the near surface waters (< 200 meters) was examined for four latitudinal zones off the Oregon- Northern California coast. Within each zone profiles were constructed at 5, 15, and 25 nautical miles offshore. Surface waters are warmer and more saline in summer than in winter. Surface temperatures increase seaward in both seasons. Surface salinities increase seaward only during winter; in summer the increase is shoreward. Offshore gradients of temperature and salinity are one to two orders of magnitude greater than longshore gradients. A strong thermocline to 30 meters and a strong halocline to 75 meters is present in summer. In winter the water is isothermal to 50 meters while a strong halocline is present to 100 meters. Below these levels temperatures and salinities continue to slowly decrease and increase, respectively, until at 200 meters they become constant throughout the study area. Variability with distance from shore is significant only in summer and is constrained to the upper 150 meters of the water column. / Graduation date: 1972

This thesis demonstrates that at low frequencies (periods longer than 2.5 days) local currents off the coast of Oregon are closely related to the wind. Wind and current observations made during August and September 1969 are described and compared to demonstrate that a relationship exists; the physics of the interaction is not understood. The data are described as functions of both time and frequency. Spectral analysis shows that wind and current were related at frequencies less than 0.017 cycles per hour and at the diurnal frequency; at other frequencies they are apparently not related. The wind and current were then filtered to suppress frequencies higher than 0.017 cycles per hour; they are shown as functions of time. Comparison of the time series reveals certain features of the relationship between wind and current. The current can be considered to be the sum of two parts: a "response" current, which is related directly to the wind, and a "residual" current which is also variable. The amplitude of the response depends on the amplitude of the wind and on the density profile of the water. The time lag between the wind and the response current was variable; on a few occasions the current led the wind. Both the response and the residual current were generally parallel to the bottom contours. The residual current seems to change during periods when the response current is interrupted, so that short current records are not indicative of the mean flow. / Graduation date: 1971

This thesis builds a demographic profile of the Northern Fur Seal (NFS) population being consumed at DfSi-4 and DfSj-23 to determine if a NFS rookery existed within close proximity to both sites. A demographic profile of the death assemblages found at each site was built using visual identification, a non-linear growth curve algorithm developed by Michael Etnier (2002) and ancient DNA analysis. This study uses the demographic profile to evaluate the existence of a NFS rookery within the Barkley Sound area. Ultimately the existence of a rookery depends on demonstrating the existence of four age categories: fetal/newborn, juvenile, adult and adult male. Results indicate that a rookery likely existed near DfSj-24A, but there is much less certainty for DfSi-4. Further inquiry is now possible into the economic and ecological relationships that existed between the Toquaht and the NFS within the Barkley Sound area. / February 2016

This thesis is concerned with a problem in the interpretation of non-western art: the iconography of the raven rattle, a carved ritual object of widespread distribution on the Northwest Coast of North America. Iconographic analysis (after Panofsky) involves identifying cultural themes and concepts associated with artistic motifs. Because of the relative scarcity of recorded primary sources of interpretation, the method adopted in this analysis has been to infer meanings from relevant cultural contexts and data. Relevant data have been judged to be museum notes, ethnographies, and myths and relevant contexts, the ceremonies in which the rattle was used. The problem has been to identify the individual motifs appearing on the rattle with associated themes and concepts, and, because the rattle is a complex image, to interpret their interrelationship within the context in which the rattle was used: initiation ceremonies presided over by chiefs. For the dominant motifs on the rattle I have argued the following interpretations: 1. The "reclining figure motif" on the back of the rattle represents the guardian spirit quest, in which the reclining figure is the novice, the protruding tongue stands for the passage of power, and the animal at the other end of the tongue identifies the source of power. 2. The "raven" at the head of the rattle refers to the origin of daylight, an event of key significance in Northwest Coast cosmology. 3. The creature on the belly of the rattle represents a trapped, wealth-bringing, supernatural, sea monster. These interpretations subsume the more specific identifications that have been made by ethnographers and informants of the objects on the rattle. Within the context in which the raven rattle was used, I have suggested that the interpretations relate to each other as follows: the origin of daylight marks the beginning of the social and natural order, of the guardian spirit quest, and of reciprocity. The sea monster on the belly is a symbol of controlled supernatural power and wealth — or the fruits of the successful quest. The relationship of these associations to the chiefs who used the rattle, is that the chief was both wealth-bringer to his tribe and had access to the "controlled use of supernatural power. This he exerted on behalf of the social order in initiation ceremonies. These conclusions indicate that the raven rattle was a significantly general symbol whose thematic referents were assumptions basic to Northwest Coast culture. In reaching these conclusions, the utility of the iconographic approach, as adapted and applied to an analysis of images in Northwest Coast art, has been demonstrated. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate