[From Editorial] This Special Issue of the Journal comprises a selection of papers based on research on ageing in African countries, which were read at the Third Global Conference. The papers were revised and peer reviewed prior to acceptance by the Journal. The theme of the Special Issue is "Ageing in urban and rural Africa." Each of the papers included in the issue deals with a situation of ageing-in-place, a late-life migratory pattern, or the impact, or implications of social forces and social change on older Africans, in either an urban and/or a rural setting, or in both types of settings in Africa. The papers also draw together the main sub-themes and strands of the conference, particularly those relating to the family, ubuntu, urbanization, AIDS, and income security and poverty.

[From Editorial] Each of the papers in this number of SAJG deals with dilemmas and issues in the matter of public and private care for older persons in southern Africa. Three papers deal explicitly with South Africa's social-security system·- specifically the old-age pension. Two papers deal with residential care models. And a sixth paper examines informal caregiving. In an expansive overview of public finance and ageing in South Africa, Van der Berg examines budgetary expenditure on the older population and places the magnitude and function of the social-pension system in perspective. The author briefly traces the historical evolution of the system. In a paper based on extensive archival research, Sagner details the history of the pension from 1920 to 1960 and shows that numerous contemporary pension-related issues are no different to issues of past decades. In her paper, Oakley examines the effects of recent changes in social-welfare policy on the residents and administrators of a home for marginalized older people in a remote South African town. She contends that new policy erroneously assumes that marginalized and historically disadvantaged older individuals are able to live self-sufficiently within the bosom of family - in a spirit of ubuntu. Ackermann and Matebesi report on a study of the experiences of carers of older family members in an African township and consider how these carers, who have few resources, could be assisted and supported in their care giving tasks. Mupedziswa describes the nature and functioning of an alternative residential care model in Zimbabwe - a cooperative living scheme specifically established to enable destitute and socially-impoverished older people to co-reside in a safe and mutually-supportive environment. Moller gives readers an insightful update and analysis of the January 1998 pension payment debacle in the Eastern Cape Province, when the payment of more than 600 000 pensioners was delayed because of provincial-government management errors. Finally, SAJG welcomes Wilson's announcement in a letter to the editor of the establishment of AFRIT A, whose aims are to promote and to co-ordinate linkages between training and research initiatives on ageing and policy structures in African countries.

[From Editorial] Several contemporary building blocks of African gerontology are used in the papers in this number of SAJG. First, Madzingira draws on 1990s' demographic data sources to examine selected levels, patterns and trends of population ageing in Zimbabwe. She briefly outlines implications of population ageing for socio-economic development in the country, and highlights critical areas such as the future of the family as a safety net for elders, inadequate social-security measures, health care provision, trends in consumption of goods and services, and the ageing population structure in the rural areas. Although based on a descriptive modernization theory model, the paper reflects the continued usefulness of the theory in highlighting the effects of structural lag, but avoids a reliance on stereotypes. Staying in Zimbabwe, Mupedziswa takes up feminist issues and critiques the plight of older female informal-sector traders and their gender-based cumulative disadvantage. The author pertinently and sympathetically examines the women's diminished access to power across the lifespan and their dilemma as they become increasingly frail. Refreshingly, he approaches his investigation from a political economy perspective, and considers the interdependence of this gender-differentiated age cohort and the social structure. Moving to Ghana, Adeku in his paper examines socio-demographic factors in the marital status of older persons. His findings highlight the greater proportion of widows in the older population, which gender differential he explains is a function of both a high mortality rate in older men and remarriage. He also specifically examines gender-based inheritance and other wealth transfer patterns - and hence uses both social exchange theory and political economy theory concepts for explanation, as well as draws on feminist theories to analyse the situations of the older women. Staying in Ghana, Darkwa gives his views on the health-care needs and challenges of older Ghanaians who reside in rural areas. Again, the author addresses a political economy issue, and makes suggestions on how the government could bridge the urban-rural health gap and improve both preventive and curative health-care service delivery to the vast majority of the older Ghanaian population which lives in the rural areas. He also introduces an intriguing notion of the role that communication technology can play in the future provision of health care to Africa's elderly. Finally, revisiting demographic and health transitions in Africa, their implications and related issues, Adamchak reviews the World Health Organization's 1997 report on Ageing in Africa, authored by Nana Araba Apt in Ghana. Adamchak evaluates this "overview" report and its relevance, and examines some of the historical and contemporary African gerontology building blocks with which the report is constructed.

[From Editorial] The papers included in this special issue highlight some of the issues of elderliness and old age in Africa outlined above. Using different disciplinary approaches, the papers should appeal to age-old researchers in varied fields. In a discussion of old age and ageing in pre-industrial Africa, Sagner moves away from the rather simplistic images of old age which still beset many African gerontologists. Drawing on the Xhosa-speaking peoples in the 19th century he argues that the experience of later life was shaped by gender, kinship and "class" differences as well as by biographical factors, making for a variety of later-life experiences. He points out that old age was not a clear-cut period of life with unique demographic, economic or social characteristics/ conditions, set apart from earlier life phases. However, he notes that (deep) old age was firmly tied to religious and metaphysical beliefs. He argues that loss of bodily functions in (deep) old age was hardly stigmatizing as the loss was socially constructed as a sign of increasing other-worldliness. By linking old age with superhuman agency, the ideological hegemony of old age remained unbroken, despite bodily decline, even though the latter could herald loss of this-worldly status and, finally, abandonment in the bush. Moller and Sotshangaye discuss contemporary relations between Zulu grandmothers and grandchildren in South Africa's KwaZulu-Natal province. Though the grandmothers whom the two authors interviewed expressed deep concern about losing the respect of their grandchildren, in the eyes of the latter old age is, surprisingly, not denigrated as a possible source of moral guidance. Moller and Sotshangaye point out that strains in the grandmothers-grandchildren relationship are located in the rapidly changing social context which easily tends to outdate the elders' teaching, rather than in the intergenerational politics of the family per se. Paradoxically, however, macro-social changes have also led to a re-strengthening of the grandmothers' moral authority. The paper also shows that successful ageing- in the sense of one's personal happiness in old age - is, at least partly, relational defined. / Moving northwards up the subcontinent to Mozambique, da Silva records the results of a case study on the situation of older people who had to cope with several long-standing wars and natural disasters in their lifetimes. She analyses the repercussions which endured displacements, forced migrations and other war-related life-course experiences had on the lives of today's elderly, both at the personal and social level. In detailing social policy propositions she reminds us that there is a fundamental divergence between how older people are represented in some authoritative discourses and the social reality of old age. To overcome the prevailing negative representations of old age is of utmost practical importance, as the problematicity image encourages non-participatory government approaches and hinders thus the empowerment of the elderly. Turning to a methodological plane, Mommersteeg details some of the problems - and advantages - which the use of interpreters in qualitative research settings entail. In keeping with a hermeneutic approach, he shows that the interpreter is in fact a culture broker, rather than a mere provider of a linguistically correct translation. Mommersteeg's paper illustrates very well that interviews which are mediated through interpreters are not dialogically but triologically constituted, as are their "products" - the storied voices of the interviewees. In her article, Coetzee reports on exploratory field research in an old-age centre outside Bloemfontein in South Africa's Free State province. Based on participant observation and in-depth interviews she finds that elderly residents experience old age negatively. Though this subjective reality partly reflects the residents' difficulties in adjusting to their ageing bodies, it is mainly grounded in her subjects' difficulties to construct a framework within which their present position in the world could be instilled with personal/social meaning. Coetzee' s paper stresses both the relevance of a life course perspective and a gender-sensitive approach to the study of old-age experience.

Southern African Journal of Gerontology; Produced within the framework of the Co-operative Research Programme on Ageing / The broad social issue of generational competition versus generational interdependence is discussed. The way elders are housed offers an excellent example of how benefits putatively allocated to older people in fact more often than not subsume benefits to family members of all ages. Data on generationally shared households from a number of countries and the results of recent studies from the United States are discussed in this context. Separate housing of generations is often preferred where feasible. Where economic, environmental. health, or social needs of either elder or young generations make autonomous households dysfunctional, members of each generation show in their household-formative behaviour their willingness to assist the other generation .

This special issue of SAJG on "The family and ageing in Africa" marks yet another step in the annals of the African Gerontological Society (AGES). The first major step was taken in December 1993 when the society held its first workshop in Accra, Ghana to discuss an agenda on ageing. The results of the workshop were published under the title Effective responses to ageing in Africa by the year 2000 (Apt, Bester & Insley, 1995). Twenty years ago it would have been an impossible task to assemble African scientists and social welfare practitioners to discuss the subject of ageing. Very little researched information existed then and many African governments were likely to assert that ageing was no problem in their country. Even in the 1980s a great deal of scepticism existed in Africa about the need for African gerontology research. Today, and taking a cue from the deliberations of the first AGES workshop, there is no country in our region that is not confronted with the negative impacts of development and urbanization as their country charts its route towards modernization. Even though an ageing agenda still has a low profile on the economic desks of many African governments, the realisation that there are indeed difficulties to be overcome regarding the care of elderly people in Africa is widespread.

[From Editorial] This issue comprises a transdisciplinary mix of interesting and relevant papers ranging from a community-development intervention, to gerontolinguistics, to guidelines for new legislation, to community services in China. The issue begins with an article on infrastructure and equity for the elderly, in which authors Ross, Lerer and Phillips investigate the attitudes of older residents of Elim, a village situated in South Africa's Western Cape province, towards electrification of their village and homes. The creation of basic infrastructure in historically-disadvantaged areas throughout South Africa is a priority under the government's RDP. However, in this case study of Elim, the utility company which provides electricity to the village failed to consult the elderly residents on the developmental intervention and the benefits which electrification might have for them. The majority of the older residents who were interviewed were consequently negative about this new energy source. The advantages which electricity has over other fuels have distinct health and other developmental benefits, and in rural households older members are important decision makers on energy use. The study's findings indicate that developmental interventions in ruralbased communities should include a social-marketing component targeting older members of the community. The article by Makoni on discourse practices in first-time encounters between old and young Xhosa-speaking women represents an exciting development in gerontological research in the Southern African region. As far as we know, this is a first report on a linguistics study in an older population in the region. In his analysis of the conversations, Makoni notes the sociohistorical background against which the old women try to retain status and respect. He points out that while the elderly are a marginalized group, the youth in South African society have become empowered through their contributions to the political changes, which along with other social changes are seen by some to destabilize traditional seniority respect norms. / In his article Van Dokkum makes out a case for the development of legislation to protect older South Africans against abuse. He uses examples of new South African legislation to deter child abuse and vast legislation in the United States to protect older Americans, in outlining a proposal for local activists to campaign for adequate protection of elderly citizens. Zhu gives us an update on a massive community social-services programme for older people being implemented in the People's Republic of China. The programme partly aims to assist an increasing number of older people who find that they are no longer able to live with kin and must live independently. The programme already serves a staggering proportion of China's 104 million persons aged 60 years and above, although it is estimated that it currently only meets 30 percent of the demand. pensions and household structure in Namibia by Adamchak published in SAJG Volume 4, No 2 (October 1995), and Adamchak's response are welcome additions to this number. The journal encourages debate on papers that it publishes, and the letters also reflect the development and growth of gerontology and research on ageing in the Southern African region. Finally, gerontolinguist Makoni reviews Hamilton's (1994) book in which the author analyses her conversations with Elsie, an Alzheimer's disease patient in a "total institution" (Goffman, 1961). The book contributes to understanding of losses and changes in language use in sufferers of this disease as the dementia progresses. Makoni proposes topics for studies on this subject which might be carried out in Southern African countries, where the majority of dementing older Africans are cared for within the community and not in a long-term care institution.

The October 1996 number of SAJG is a special issue on "Gender, ageing and empowerment in Africa." The guest editor of the special issue is Maria Cattell of Millersville University, Pennsylvania, USA, who has conducted substantial research on older Kenyans and more recently on Zulu grandmothers. Dr Cattell is the President of the global Association of Anthropology and Gerontology (AAGE). The issue will comprise research papers from authors in several African countries, and will provide valuable data and experience of ageing in Africa for transnational comparison.

[From Editorial] Articles in this Special Issue on health and ageing in Africa come from a broad spectrum of disciplines and the articles reflect a wide range of topics. Three contributions deal with the maintenance of good health. Remaining active is a key component of successful ageing which minimizes the loss of functional independence in the elderly. An investigation of the role of gender in the analysis of gait of older people by Macfarlane, Nicholson and Muller provides important methodological information which may be applied in practical outcomes-based assessments. The development of a reliable tool to assess gait, as a measure of lower-extremity function, is thus pertinent. There is growing evidence that good nutritional status is an important determinant of optimal cognitive and physical functioning in older people and influences both quality of life and health status. In a study of institutionalized elderly women in Cape Town, Charlton, Joosen and Jaffer report a high prevalence of suboptimal vitamin C status. The authors make out a case for low-dose micro-nutrient supplementation in residents of homes for the aged, particularly in homes where a cook-chill catering system is operated. They suggest that ongoing nutritional assessment should be an integral part of the care of older residents. In keeping with the topic of nutrition, Walker, a prolific author on public health issues in Africa over the past 50 years, has contributed a guest column in which he addresses the nutrition-ageing paradigm from an epidemiological viewpoint. He highlights opportunities for high-quality research on the association between life-style factors and healthy ageing in the continent. Moving on to a specific form of health-care delivery, Makoni examines language practices in the care that is rendered to older residents of a Cape Town nursing home. He describes barriers in communication between nursing staff and residents from different ethnic backgrounds, which compromise the quality of care that is rendered and which may result in conflict and tension between staff and residents. In her article, Tlou evaluates a community-based programme in which older women who live in rural areas of Botswana are trained to educate members of their communities in the prevention of the spread of the HIV I AIDS virus. The findings demonstrate the benefits of targeting lay persons for health education activities in rural Africa and the utilization of older persons, in this case women, as a valuable resource. The special issue also includes two opinion pieces and an item which opens debate. In separate contributions, Wilson and Duodu examine challenges facing effective health-care service delivery systems for older persons in African countries and express their opinions in this regard. Wilson's suggestions for multidisciplinary specialist teams, including incontinence teams, nutrition teams and vision teams, and for the development of training for lay people to become generic " rehabilitation assistants," are examples of appropriate community-based African solutions to health service delivery needs of the older population. Duodo makes similar suggestions to those of Wilson, specifically regarding geriatric care service delivery in Ghana. He also highlights the common practice of traditional self-medication in rural-dwelling older Ghanaians. Readers are invited to comment on, and indeed to augment, the authors' opinions in Letters to the Editor. To date, very little work has been done in South Africa on biological aspects of ageing. In a short contribution on the free radical theory of ageing, Van Rensburg and Potocnik open debate on this topic. Once again, readers are invited to contribute to debate in this area in letters to the editor, for publication in the following number of the journal.

[From Editorial] Four of the five articles in this issue either deal explicitly with or refer to the effects of the AIDS epidemics in the authors' countries. The fifth paper deals with late-life chronic diseases of life-style. In the first paper, Akinsola examines effects of the epidemic on older Batswana and evaluates the effectiveness of his country's Community Home-Based Care programme against the programme's objectives, with special reference to the situation of older persons as primary caregivers to PWAs and AIDS orphans. He concludes that the situation of older carers calls for strong and urgent policy action to assist this highly vulnerable and marginalized group in its critical and valuable role and function as carers. In her paper on the provision of housing and care for older persons in Zambia, Sichingabula considers implications of the anticipated increases in AIDS morbidity and mortality, in the form of an increased demand for formal housing and care by older Zambians in the face of diminished traditional support. Given effects of the country's Structural Adjustment Programme and the Zambian government's inability to expand provision of formal support for the older population, the author makes recommendations for initiatives which NGOs can undertake towards meeting the needs and improving the quality of life of older persons. Next, Shaibu examines the experiences of caregivers to older persons in Botswana within a context of pervasive, abject poverty and multiple, unmet basic needs. The author notes how the HIV I AIDS epidemic, in addition to other social forces, impacts family structures and the capacity of Batswana to care for older relatives. In their paper, authors Patel, Steyn, Charlton, Bourne, Laubscher, Fourie and Jooste describe the risk-factor profile for chronic diseases of life-style, such as hypertension, hypercholesterolaemia and obesity, in the older black population of Cape Town and compare it with risk profiles in other South African ethnic groups. The authors note that although the study population is still at low risk of cardiovascular disease - for example, demographic changes, including urbanisation and the adoption of urban life-styles, are likely to lead to an increase in chronic morbidity in future older cohorts in this population. In a second paper, Sichingabula assesses the physical and social environment of Divine Providence Home, a residential care facility for destitute older persons in Lusaka, Zambia. She draws practitioners' attention to the prudence of incorporating design features in facilities built for older persons which enhance the users' mobility, independence and quality of life. She also highlights a lack of social stimulation and the inactivity of the residents at the home. The author makes the point that given an anticipated increased demand for admission to residential care facilities as a result of AIDS-related deaths and loss of traditional support for older persons, living environments in these facilities must be optimized. In sum, the AIDS-related research papers in this number highlight a need to identify and to strengthen social and care systems which can assist older persons in Africa, as traditional systems are increasingly affected by demographic forces, particularly the effects of the HIV/AIDS epidemics. Finally, Moller reviews a recent, landmark Help Age International report (1999), which is a compilation of 15 papers on ageing in developing countries and challenges facing research, policy and practice.