Traditionally archaeology has referred to the anthropic sediments accumulated around prehistoric settlements with the blanket term ‘midden’. This is now recognised as an inadequate term to describe the complex formation processes and functions represented in these sediments. This thesis reviewed the body of evidence accumulated over the past century of research into Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements on the islands of the Scottish North Atlantic seaboard and extrapolated the many occurrences of ‘midden’. Several contexts emerged for these sediments including interior floors, hearths, exterior occupational surfaces, dumped deposits, building construction materials and abandonment infill. In addition, ‘midden’ is described added to cultivated soils to form fertile anthrosols. The way in which prehistoric communities exploited this material for agriculture and construction has been described through geoarchaeological research which implied that to past communities ‘midden’ was a valuable resource. This led to the formation of a model based upon a human ecodynamics framework to hypothesise sediment formation pathways. Rescue excavation at the Links of Noltland, Westray provided an opportunity to conduct a holistic landscape and fine resolution based study of Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement to test this model. The research incorporated auger survey, archaeological and geoarchaeological excavation, thin section micromorphology and SEM EDX analyses. Sediments identified in literature review and recovered from the field site were described using this toolkit and set within a cultural and environmental context. Results demonstrate that anthropic materials were incorporated into all contexts examined. Discrete burning and maintenance activities were found to have taken place during the gradual accumulation of open-air anthropic sediments whilst incorporation of fuel residues and hearth waste into floors lead to the gradual formation of ‘living floors’ inside structures. An unexpected discovery was evidence of animal penning within late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age settlement and the in situ burning of stabling waste. Three types iv | P a g e of land management strategy which relied upon the input of anthropic sediments were evidenced and the range and extent of anthropic inclusions in the landscape recorded. Spatial interpolation of auger survey data utilised a new sub-surface modelling technique being developed by the British Geological Survey to explore soil stratigraphic relationships in 3D. SEM EDX analysis supported micromorphological analysis providing chemical data for discrete inclusions and assisting in the identification of herbivore dun ash and the Orcadian funerary product ‘cramp’. SEM EDX analysis was also applied to fine organo-mineral material for statistical testing of nutrient loadings across context groups. It was found that anthropic sediments were enriched in macro and intermediate plant nutrients Mg, P, K, S and Ca compared to geological controls, and the application of anthropic material to cultivated soils improved soil fertility for the three observed land management practices. The versatility of anthropic sediments was explored through discussion of context groups based upon the results of this research and the potential significance of this material to prehistoric communities is explored.

Thesis (MPA)--Stellenbosch University, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: An effort to enhance job creation and to alleviate poverty amongst the youth as an important sector of the South African society has created a need to determine the relevance of training as a way of promoting SMME development in the KOSH area. Training is an important tool for SMME development. Based on the above analysis, the objectives of the study are to assess the relevance of training provided in relation to the economic profile and business opportunities in the KOSH area and to assess the effectiveness of training that is provided by various agencies in the KOSH area. The study also looks into the business and employment opportunities put in place to help youth participation after undergoing training. The study focuses on training as a tool for SMME development within the youth sector of the KOSH area. It mainly deals with the importance of training, which if conducted in a proper manner, should contribute to the development of SMME. While policies and institutions have been put in place to provide technical and business training skills in the KOSH area, targeting both women and youth who aspires to be entrepreneurs, there seem to be not significant expansion of the small business in order to create job opportunities. The status quo remains. Participants from these training programmes are pursuing their traditional form of business and there is little, if any, innovation and diversification in economic activities in this sector. Conclusions based on the study indicate that training should be an integral component for any SMME development strategy. Programmes promoting entrepreneurial culture should target all studying young people, and also those not enrolled at institutions of learning. The private sector seems to be playing a minimal role in the provision of training. This sector's contribution in training programmes, in a partnership with pubic institutions, is lacking. After care services to trainees is not provided for adequately. Planning for effective SMME training in the KOSH area should further take into consideration technology, social, economic, political and institutional factors which are affecting it at the moment. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In 'n poging om werkskepping te bevorder en armoede onder die jeug te verlig, as 'n belangrike fokuspunt in die Suid-Afrikaanse gemeenskap, is dit belangrik om te bepaal wat die relevansie van opleiding is ter bevordering van SMME ontwikkeling in die KOSHgebied. Gebaseer op 'n ontleding in die verband is die oogmerke van die studie om 'n waardebepaling te doen ten opsigte van die toepaslikheid van opleiding in die KOSH-gebied, en om die doeltreffendheid van opleiding wat veskaf word deur die onderskeie agentskappe in die KOSH-gebied te evalueer. Die studie fokus op opleiding as instrument vir SMME ontwikkeling. Dit ontleed hoofsaaklik die belang en waarde van die opleiding wat, indien korrek toegepas, kan bydra tot die ontwikkeling van SMME's. Alhoewel beleid en institusionele reelings voorsiening maak vir opleiding in tegniese- en besigheidsvaardighede, en bemarking spesifiek fokus op vrouens en die jeug wat entrepreneurskap bevordering betref; blyk dit dat daar nie beduidende groei is in die skepping van werksgeleenthede nie. Die status quo word gehandhaaf; deelnemers volg hul tradisionele vorme van ondernemerskap of besigheid en daar bestaan min, indien enige vernuwende denke en diversifikasie in ekonomiese aktiwiteite. Samevattings gebaseer op die studie dui daarop dat opleiding 'n integrale element van enige SMME-ontwikkelingstrategie moet wees. Programme ter bevordering van 'n interpreneurskultuur moet gerig wees op beide jongmense in akademiese instellings en die nie-skoolgaande jeug. Vennootskapspogings deur die private- en openbare sektor, skyn te kort te skiet aan koordinering in die verskaffing van opleiding. Die privaat sektor se rol is onvoldoende en daar word nie vir 'n nasorgdiens voorsiening gemaak nie. Beplanning vir effektiewe SMME opleiding in die KOSH-gebied moet verder tegnologiese, sosiale, ekonomiese, politiese, en institusionele faktore in aanmerking neem wat dit tans beinvloed.

The focus of this thesis is on the most commonly used types of stone, the methods of quarrying stone, stone working, the tools developed and used for that purpose, and the ways in which stone was transported and hoisted into place. This is starting from the earliest times in which large temples or buildings were constructed, namely the Neolithic, up till the time of the Roman Empire. Besides being a kind of compendium of most aspects of stone working, which could be found, also attention is given to the ideal conditions under which the construction of a large temple or monument could take place. The framework, which is developed from the description of the construction of Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem in I Kings 5 and I Chronicles 28, is used to analyse the construction of a number of other temples in different times, places and settings, and with the use of different materials, to test if the framework is applicable in all these situations. Moreover, also other aspects of stone working, such as mosaics and the manufacturing of stone vessels in Jerusalem are described and analysed as to their origins and uses. The intention is to give an overview of the many ways in which stone has been used, so that the reader can get an idea of how large temples and monuments were built and to gain an understanding of what kind of technical know-how and ingenuity existed in antiquity. / Religious Studies and Arabic / D. Phil. (Religious Studies (Biblical Archaeology))