The focus of this PhD is on the way in which policy makers and practitioners ‘plan’ ‘community’ in the realisation of urban policies, particularly in housing and regeneration. The research underpinning this PhD took place against a policy backdrop of measures to increase the supply of (affordable) housing, to reduce social exclusion and to promote urban renaissance and sustainable communities. The common theme through all of the outputs has been focused on ‘community’ both as a entity which exists but which is difficult to define, and as an instrument of policy. The critical review presented here is in two distinct halves. The first half considers how community has been defined by policy makers and used as a tool in delivering better urban environments. As such it outlines how community has been commodified within policy, how through this commodification it is utilised through its active engagement in decision making, how it is physically planned via new housing developments and ultimately engages with questions as to whether community is lost through these moves. The second half of the review engages with discussions around mutualism. Drawing on research focused around co-operative and mutual housing it outlines how community exists organically and how this might be better understood if community is to be more successfully harnessed in urban and social policy. The review concludes by outlining areas for further research in taking this agenda forward.

This thesis presents the results of a multi-proxy analysis of two sediment cores recovered from within the Indian-Atlantic Ocean Gateway (I-AOG). The main focus of this study was on sediment core MD02-2588 which was recovered from the southern Agulhas Plateau. This core was used to produce reconstructions of the paleoceanographic variability of the deep and surface ocean during the past 150 kyr BP. Preliminary paleoceanographic records spanning the past 50 kyr BP are also presented from sediment core CD154-23-16P, recovered off southern Africa. To reconstruct the history of mid-depth ocean circulation on the southern Agulhas Plateau during the past 150 kyr BP, a range of physical and chemical bottom water parameters were derived from the stable isotope, elemental ratio and grain size data from core MD02-2588. These data suggest that, during glacial stages, the southern Agulhas Plateau and the wider mid-depth South Atlantic Ocean came under increased influence of southern-sourced deep waters and experienced an increase in the storage of respired carbon, as CO2 was sequestered from the glacial atmosphere. The associated decrease in the relative volume of northern-sourced deep waters bathing the MD02-2588 core site appears to be counterbalanced by the lower nutrient content of northern-sourced water masses during glacial stages resulting in an overall reduction of nutrient concentrations in the mid-depth South Atlantic. The glacial lowering of seawater nutrient concentration in the mid-depth South Atlantic was possibly also affected by an increase in the formation of lower-nutrient mid-depth waters by open ocean convection in polynyas within the expanded circum-Antarctic sea ice zone. During glacial terminations, mid-depth nutrient concentrations within the I-AOG reach their highest values of the past 150 kyr BP. These increases are interpreted as resulting from the upward mixing of nutrient-rich bottom waters from the deepest and most isolated layers in the Southern Ocean following the deglacial breakdown of stratification in the ocean interior. The increases in mid-depth nutrient concentration recorded during deglaciations occur in tandem with increases in the bottom water carbonate saturation state on the southern Agulhas Plateau and increases of pCO2 in Antarctic ice cores. The covariation of these parameters supports the premise of increased out-gassing of carbon from the deep Southern Ocean during deglaciations. This thesis also examines how the position of the subtropical front (STF) within the I-AOG migrated over the past 150 ky BP and considers how these changes may have impacted the nutrient supply to the surface waters of the southern Agulhas Plateau. The record of bulk sediment nitrogen isotope composition (δ15NBulk) from sediment core MD02-2588 suggests that the northward migration of the STF during glacials is associated with increases in nutrient supply relative to interglacial levels. Enhanced nutrient supply to the surface waters of the southern Agulhas Plateau is thought to be caused by increased northward advection of relatively nutrient-rich Subantarctic surface waters to the MD02-2588 core site, along with weaker upper ocean stratification which facilitated vertical mixing of nutrients from the thermocline. The likeness of the δ15NBulk record from MD02-2588 with analogous records from the eastern equatorial Pacific may suggest that the temporal variability of the isotopic composition of ocean nitrate within these two regions is linked on glacial-interglacial timescales, possibly as a consequence of changes in the position of the Southern Ocean fronts. New data from a set of core-top samples collected around New Zealand were used to assess the utility of the deep-dwelling planktonic foraminifera species Globorotalia truncatulinoides as a recorder of the isotopic composition of dissolved inorganic carbon in seawater. The downcore record of carbon isotopes in this planktonic foraminifera from MD02-2588 displays a correlation with the Antarctic ice core records of the isotopic composition of carbon in the atmosphere during the past 150 kyr BP. The correlation of these records demonstrates the importance of carbon transfer between the Southern Ocean and the atmosphere. Preliminary results of the bulk elemental composition and foraminiferal stable isotope records spanning the past 50 kyr BP are presented from sediment core CD154-23-16P, recovered from the Mallory Seamount off southern Africa. These records are used to reconstruct the terrestrial hydroclimate of southeastern Africa and the hydrography of the Agulhas Current.

The aim of this study is to investigate how teachers use collaboration, didactics and geography to teach sustainable development to upper secondary pupils in Swedish schools. A qualitative and interview method was chosen in order to catch the strategies amongst teachers and their perceptions in these matters. Five in depth interviews were held with experienced teachers in four different schools. These interviews were selected by different strategies such as the Possibility Principle and the understanding of gatekeepers’ roles’. A narrative material was collected. Four theoretical areas were developed for analysing the retrieved material. A school with a clear sustainability profile has both resources and the developed didactical methods, to enhance the understanding of sustainable development. However, the investigated schools have their own varieties of tackling lacking time and resources which have developed competencies’ in different ways. These are complementary didactical methods in order to enhance sustainable development. For further research a historical perspective was suggested.

Orientador: Daniel Marcos Bonotto / Banca: José Ricardo Sturaro / Banca: Antonio Fernando Monteiro Camargo / Resumo: As características morfométricas têm efeitos relevantes sobre quase todas as variáveis físicas, químicas e biológicas de um lago ou reservatório. Nesse sentido, esta pesquisa teve como objetivo caracterizar a morfometria e o grau de trofia do reservatório da Floresta Estadual "Edmundo Navarro de Andrade" (FEENA), assim como estimar a variabilidade horizontal das variáveis físicas, químicas e biológicas (clorofila-a) na coluna d'água durante um período sazonal e nictemeral. Este estudo apresenta a primeira carta batimétrica do reservatório da FEENA. Os mapas batimétricos e de dispersão horizontal das variáveis estudadas foram gerados utilizando a Geoestatística como ferramenta no tratamento dos dados. Os resultados do levantamento batimétrico demonstraram que o reservatório encontra-se muito raso, principalmente em seu compartimento norte, próximo ao tributário. A profundidade média do reservatório é de 0,86 m e a máxima de 2,16 m. Devido à profundidade reduzida detectou-se grande variabilidade nos padrões de estratificação térmica da coluna d'água durante o monitoramento sazonal e nictemeral. Desta forma, o reservatório foi classificado como polimítico. Os estudos geoestatísticos subsidiaram as análises de caracterização morfométrica e a estimativa da variabilidade horizontal das variáveis no reservatório. O emprego da krigagem ordinária, com o recurso da estimativa de uma medida de dispersão, como o desvio padrão da krigagem, foi de significativa importância para a consistência deste trabalho. Por meio de uma análise comparativa entre os mapas de dispersão horizontal das variáveis clorofila-a, nitrogênio total e fósforo total gerados pela krigagem ordinária, foi possível observar que os níveis mais elevados concentraram-se na região intermediária e próxima ao vertedouro do reservatório, e os menores índices próximo ao tributário. Observa-se, ainda, que os valores de... / Abstract: The morphometric characteristics have significant effects on almost all physical, chemical and biological characteristics of a lake or reservoir. Accordingly, this study aimed to characterize the morphometry and trophic state of the reservoir State Forest "Edmundo Navarro de Andrade" (FEENA), as well as estimate the horizontal variability of physical, chemical and biological (chlorophyll a) in the column water during a seasonal and diurnal period. This study presents the first bathymetric chart of the FEENA reservoir. The bathymetric and variables dispersion maps were generated using geostatistics as a tool in data processing. Bathymetric survey results showed that the reservoir is silted up very especially in its sector north nears the tributary. The average depth of the reservoir is 0,86 m and the max depth is 2,16 m. Due to the reduced depth was detected high thermal variability of the water column during the diurnal and seasonal monitoring. Thus, the reservoir was ranked as polymitic. Geostatistical studies subsidized the analysis of morphometric characterization and estimation of the horizontal variability of the variables in the reservoir. The use of ordinary kriging, with the resource of estimating a measure of dispersion as the standard deviation of kriging, was of significant importance for the consistency of this work. Through a comparative analysis between the horizontal dispersion maps variable chlorophyll-a, total nitrogen and total phosphorus generated by ordinary kriging, it is observed that the highest levels concentrated in the intermediate region and near the spillway of the reservoir, and lower rates in the proximal portion to the tributary. Was observed also that the values of chlorophyll-a showed a higher correlation with total nitrogen seasonality of the environment in comparison with the total phosphorus. The low values obtained in the N : P ratio indicates that the limitation of primary productivity in the reservoir... / Mestre

To increase our understanding of how ice sheets and glaciers interact with the climate system, numerical models have become an indispensable tool. However, the complexity of these systems and the natural limitation in computational power is reflected in the simplifications of the represented processes and the spatial and temporal resolution of the models. Whether the effect of these limitations is acceptable or not, can be assessed by theoretical considerations and by validating the output of the models against real world data. Equally important is to verify if the numerical implementation and computational method accurately represent the mathematical description of the processes intended to be simulated. This thesis concerns a set of numerical models used in the field of glaciology, how these are applied and how they relate to other study areas in the same field. The dynamical flow of glaciers, which can be described by a set of non-linear partial differential equations called the Full Stokes equations, is simulated using the finite element method. To reduce the computational cost of the method significantly, it is common to lower the order of the used elements. This results in a loss of stability of the method, but can be remedied by the use of stabilization methods. By numerically studying different stabilization methods and evaluating their suitability, this work contributes to constraining the values of stabilization parameters to be used in ice sheet simulations. Erroneous choices of parameters can lead to oscillations of surface velocities, which affects the long term behavior of the free-surface ice and as a result can have a negative impact on the accuracy of the simulated mass balance of ice sheets. The amount of basal sliding is an important component that affects the overall dynamics of the ice. A part of this thesis considers different implementations of the basal impenetrability condition that accompanies basal sliding, and shows that methods used in literature can lead to a difference in velocity of 1% to 5% between the considered methods. The subglacial hydrological system directly influences the glacier's ability to slide and therefore affects the velocity distribution of the ice. The topology and dominant mode of the hydrological system on the ice sheet scale is, however, ill constrained. A third contribution of this thesis is, using the theory of R-channels to implement a simple numerical model of subglacial water flow, to show the sensitivity of subglacial channels to transient processes and that this limits their possible extent. This insight adds to a cross-disciplinary discussion between the different sub-fields of theoretical, field and paleo-glaciology regarding the characteristics of ice sheet subglacial hydrological systems. In the study, we conclude by emphasizing areas of importance where the sub-fields have yet to unify: the spatial extent of channelized subglacial drainage, to what degree specific processes are connected to geomorphic activity and the differences in spatial and temporal scales. As a whole, the thesis emphasizes the importance of verification of numerical models but also acknowledges the natural limitations of these to represent complex systems. Focusing on keeping numerical ice sheet and glacier models as transparent as possible will benefit end users and facilitate accurate interpretations of the numerical output so it confidently can be used for scientific purposes. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.</p> / Greenland Analogue Project

Estuaries are highly dynamic systems, subject to continuous morphological change, which results from complex interactions and feedbacks between the hydrodynamic processes, sediment transport processes and the ecology. The prediction of morphological change in estuaries is therefore difficult but is necessary to help protect a range of human interests and estuarine ecosystems. Existing methods use detailed process modelling (Bottom-Up methods) or rely on data analysis and the development simple equilibrium relationships (Top-Down methods). Bottom-Up methods are able to make accurate predictions of change over short timescales but suffer from long simulation times and an accumulation of errors when applied over medium and long timescales, while Top-Down methods are better suited for predicting long term trends in morphological behaviour. A need currently exists for new, improved methods to predict changes occurring over medium timescales (one year to several decades). This thesis presents a new, Cellular Automata based, estuarine morphodynamic model, which divides the estuary into an array of cells and uses simplified representations of the hydrodynamic and sediment transport processes together with empirical rules to represent salt marsh ecology. The model has been developed to focus on high level interaction and feedback effects between these processes in order to identify potential medium term morphological changes that may occur in response to environmental change or engineering works. The model has been tested using a series of sensitivity tests and idealised test scenarios for a simple generic estuary and was found to have successfully generated qualitatively realistic results. The model is robust and computationally very efficient. Further work is now needed to calibrate and verify the model using datasets from real estuaries. Future improvements may also include the addition of ocean waves, littoral wave driven sand transport and improvements to the methodology in order to further enhance the computational efficiency.

Establishing relationships between morphology and behaviour in response to environmental selection pressures are crucial to understand the evolution of diversity within groups such as the hominoids. Muscle architecture (fascicle length and physiological cross-sectional area) from the fore and hindlimbs in the non-human apes were compared, with the result that it did not differ substantially, likely reflecting their characteristic use of orthograde behaviours. At the micro-architecture level, significant differences in the proportions of fast and slow muscle fibres of the triceps surae were found between orangutans and chimpanzees, reflecting subtle differences in locomotion and habitat use. As the largest, predominantly arboreal ape, orangutans were expected to have specific behavioural adaptations to the complex arboreal habitat. A new method was developed, Sutton Movement Writing and was successfully applied to record the subtle variations in positional behaviour and compliant support use in orangutans under field conditions. Finally, postural specialisations used during feeding in the terminal branch niche were identified. Overall, this thesis shows that although the non-human apes appear to share overall behaviours and morphology, more subtle variations in micro-architecture and behaviour are present in orangutans in response to their habitat, and reflects key adaptations since their split from the last common-ape ancestor.

Rainier, Oregon, has experienced problems in the development of residential and commercial sites, utilities, and transportation facilities as a result of slope instability. This study of slope stability at Rainier was conducted at the request of city officials.

Shaped by countless influences from the atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and anthroposphere acting across a wide spectrum of spatiotemporal scales, spatial variations in climate are ubiquitous. Meanwhile, the warming signal from anthropogenically elevated greenhouse-gas concentrations is emerging as an overriding determinant for more and more aspects of the climate system, extreme heat among them. In this dissertation, I explore the interaction of these two effects, and the implications of the patterns they create. A key finding is that rapid increases in extreme heat are already occurring, by some metrics having already doubled in the past 40 years, and further nonlinear increases are expected. Another is the strong dependence of extreme heat-humidity combinations on atmospheric moisture, creating subseasonal and interannual patterns dictated by the principal source of regional warm-season moisture — pre-monsoonal advection in some cases, local evapotranspiration in others. These relationships lead to the demonstrated potential for improvements in predictive power, on the basis of sea-surface temperatures and other canonical modes of large-scale climate variability. In contrast to this overall confidence in current temporal patterns and long-term projections, I show that extreme heat at small spatial scales is much more poorly characterized in gridded products, and that these biases are especially acute along coastlines. While summer daytime temperature differences between the shoreline of the Northeast U.S. and locations 60 km inland are often 5°C or more, I find that recent high-resolution downscaled Earth-system models typically represent no more than 25% of this difference. Across the globe, ERA-Interim reanalysis similarly underestimates extreme humid heat by >3°C, a highly significant margin given the large sensitivity of health and economic impacts to marginal changes in the most extreme conditions. I find that these biases propagate into projections, and their importance is also amplified by the large populations living in the affected areas. Rapid mean warming is pushing the climate system to more and more frequently include extreme heat-humidity combinations beyond that which the human species has likely ever experienced. Such conditions, which had not been previously reported in weather-station data, are described in detail and some of the associated characteristics examined. Several channels of analysis highlight that these events are driven primarily by rising sea-surface temperatures in shallow subtropical gulfs, and the subsequent impingement of marine air on the coastline. Given the severity of potential impacts on infrastructure and agriculture, and the size of the populations exposed, this result underscores that major research and adaptation efforts are needed to avoid calamitous outcomes from the emergence of extreme heat-humidity combinations too severe to tolerate in the absence of artificial cooling. This dissertation discusses strategies for advancing knowledge of extreme heat’s natural variations and its behavior under climate change, in order to design metrics, models, methodologies, and presentation types such that essential findings are translated into tangible action in the most effective way possible. Sustained and integrated efforts are necessary to transition to a climate-system management style encompassing more foresight than the effectively unplanned experiment which has been pursued so far, and which has already exacerbated extreme heat events so much.

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