Introdução. A leishmaniose tegumentar americana (LTA) é uma endemia de importância em saúde pública na Amazônia Brasileira, onde possui diferentes perfis de transmissão com a participação de diversas espécies de vetores e de protozoários do gênero Leishmania. O Estado do Acre apresenta altos índices de LTA e, no ano de 2015, apresentou o mais alto coeficiente de detecção de casos (137,7/100.000 hab.) da doença no Brasil. Objetivo. Analisar aspectos epidemiológicos da LTA no município de Xapuri, Estado do Acre, Brasil, envolvendo população humana, cães domésticos, vetores e identificação de Leishmania. Materiais e Métodos. Para a avaliação epidemiológica, foram analisadas fichas de notificação dos casos humanos no período de 2008 a 2014 obtidas do sistema de vigilância epidemiológica do município. Foram analisadas as variáveis: sexo, grupo etário, escolaridade, forma clínica, diagnóstico, tratamento e evolução clínica. Os dados foram submetidos à análise descritiva e teste estatístico do qui-quadrado de Pearson utilizando o pacote estatístico STATA. Também foram obtidas amostras de material de pacientes (escarificação das lesões fixadas em lâminas) atendidos no centro médico do município, durante o período de novembro de 2014 a janeiro de 2016. As amostras foram submetidas à análise molecular para diagnóstico de Leishmania spp. O inquérito canino foi realizado em áreas urbanas e rurais; nestas, predominantemente, em seringais, onde a doença foi reportada em humanos. Após avaliação clínica dos animais para busca de lesões e sinais característicos de leishmanioses, foram coletadas amostras de sangue venoso por punção jugular ou cefálica, e quando havia lesões sugestivas da doença, foram anestesiados e submetidos à biopsia para colheita do fragmento de lesão. Amostras destes fragmentos foram submetidas a técnicas parasitológicas, inoculação em meio de cultura Neal, Novy e Nicolle, exame direto e técnicas moleculares para detecção do parasita. A identificação de Leishmania spp. foi realizada por técnicas moleculares. Os flebotomíneos foram coletados em ambiente domiciliar e florestal de dois seringais (Floresta e Cachoeira) e na área urbana, com armadilhas luminosas tipo CDC, instaladas mensalmente, no período de agosto de 2013 a julho de 2015. Neste período, apenas no seringal Cachoeira, também foram feitas coletas utilizando armadilhas de Shannon nas cores branca e preta, e de janeiro a maio de 2016, coletas em trocos de árvores com aspiradores manuais. Uma amostra de fêmeas coletadas pelas diferentes técnicas foi dissecada viii para investigação da presença de flagelados. Para a análise do comportamento da fauna flebotomínea foram utilizados índices ecológicos como de Shannon, Pielou e Abundância das Espécies Padronizado, média geométrica de Williams e análise dos componentes principais. Para estimar a atratividade dos flebotomíneos pelas cores branca e preta foi utilizado o teste de Mann-Whitney (p<0,05). Análises morfométricas utilizando o teste de Gabriel (teste F, p <0,05) foram feitas para distinguir alguns táxons. Para as análises moleculares dos parasitas foi empregada a técnica de Nested-PCR SSU rRNA utilizando os iniciadores S4/S12 e S17/S18 e sequenciamento. Resultados. No estudo de casos humanos, constatou-se que a doença ocorre predominantemente em populações rurais e isoladas do município, em indivíduos de ambos os sexos, com as incidências mais elevadas em crianças e adolescentes. Em 33 dos 45 pacientes com clínica positiva para LTA foram detectadas a presença de DNA de Leishmania spp. Nos cães domésticos, verificou-se alta taxa de infecção (20,0 por cento ) por Leishmania (Viannia) sp. Nos estudos de flebotomíneos, foram coletados 21.197 espécimes (14.210 fêmeas e 7.107 machos) com armadilhas CDC, e 6.309 (864 machos e 5.445 fêmeas) com armadilhas de Shannon. As frequências, abundâncias e densidades mais elevadas foram dos gêneros Nyssomyia, Psychodopygus e Trichophoromyia, coletados em ambientes silvestres, peri e intradomiciliares. Em ambiente rural foram coletados 99,9 por cento dos espécimes e no urbano apenas 0,1 por cento . Nyssomyia shawi predominou no Seringal Cachoeira, e Trichophoromyia spp. (Th. auraensis/Th. ruifreitasi) no Seringal Floresta. Espécies do gênero Psychodopygus predominaram no período chuvoso, enquanto as de Nyssomyia, no período seco. Infecções por Leishmania spp. foram detectadas em Brumptomyia sp., Nyssomyia antunesi, Ny. shawi, Lutzomyia sherlocki, Psathyromyia aragaoi, Psychodopygus carrerai carrerai, Ps. davisi, Ps. hirsutus hisutus, Ps. llanosmartinsi, Ps. lainsoni, Thrichophoromyia ubiquitalis e Trichophoromyia spp. Por meio de análises morfológicas e morfométricas das fêmeas de Trichophoromyia sugeriu-se a distinção de Th. octavioi de Trichophoromyia spp. (Th. auraensis/Th. ruifreitasi) e descreveu-se, Psathyromyia elizabethdorvalae sp. n. Conclusões. A LTA em Xapuri apresenta um perfil de transmissão silvestre e outro domiciliar. As populações humanas e caninas que frequentam ambientes florestais estão expostas a uma alta diversidade de vetores e de agentes etiológicos, o que aumenta o risco de infecção de LTA. As informações aqui apresentadas podem nortear as medidas de controle, planejamento das ações e definição de prioridades dos órgãos de vigilância epidemiológica do Estado do Acre, visando o diagnóstico precoce e tratamento adequado dos casos de leishmanioses da população humana de Xapuri / Introduction. American cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL) is an endemic disease that deserves the attention of public health in the Brazilian Amazon, where it has various transmission profiles with the participation of several species of vectors and protozoa of the genus Leishmania. The state of Acre registers high rates of ACL, having in 2015 the highest coefficient of detection of cases (137.7 / 100,000 inhab.) in Brazil. Objective. To analyze the epidemiological aspects of LTA in the municipality of Xapuri, State of Acre, Brazil, involving the human population, domestic dogs, vectors and the identification of Leishmania ssp. Materials and Methods. For the epidemiological evaluation, records of the human cases notified between 2008 and 2014 obtained from the epidemiological surveillance system of the municipality, were analyzed. The following variables were selected for analysis: sex, age group, schooling, clinical form, diagnosis, treatment and clinical evolution. The data were submitted to descriptive analysis and the Pearson chi-squared statistical test using the statistical package STATA. Samples of patient material (scarification of lesions fixed on slides) were also obtained from the medical center of the city during the period from November 2014 to January 2016. These samples were submitted to molecular analysis for the diagnosis of Leishmania spp. The canine survey was carried out in both urban and rural areas, in the latter rubber plantations where the disease had been reported in humans predominated. After a clinical evaluation to search for lesions and characteristic signs of leishmaniasis, samples of venous blood were collected by jugular or cephalic puncture, and when the animals presented lesions suggestive of cutaneous leishmaniasis, they were anesthetized and submitted to biopsy to harvest the lesion fragment. Samples of these fragments were submitted to parasitological techniques, inoculation in Neal, Novy and Nicolle culture medium, direct examination and molecular techniques to detect Leishmania spp. The samples were submitted to molecular analysis for the diagnosis of Leishmania spp. The phlebotomine survey was carried out in forest and the domiciliary environment of the city and in two rubber plantation areas (Seringal Cachoeira and Seringal Floresta), monthly using CDC light traps, from August 2013 to July 2015. In this period, only in the Seringal Cachoeira were collections also made using black and white Shannon traps. Collections in tree trunks and among tree roots with manual aspirators were also undertaken from January to May 2016. xi Samples of females collected by different techniques were dissected to investigate the presence of flagellates. For the analysis of the behavior of the phlebotomine fauna, ecological indexes such as Shannon, Pielou, and Standardized Species Abundance, Williams geometric mean and main component analysis were used. The Mann-Whitney test (p <0.05) was used to estimate the attractiveness of the black and white colors to sandflies. Morphometric analyses using the Gabriel test (test F, p <0.05) were made to distinguish between some taxa. For the molecular analyses of the parasites the Nested-PCR SSU rRNA technique was used using primers S4 / S12 and S17 / S18 and sequencing. Results. In the study of human cases, it was found that the disease occurs in rural and isolated populations and in individuals of both sexes, especially in children and adolescents. In 33 of the 45 patients with positive ACL, the presence of Leishmania spp DNA was detected. The domestic dogs have shown a high infection rate (20.0 per cent ) attributed to Leishmania (Viannia) sp. In the sandfly studies, 21,197 specimens (14,210 females and 7,107 males) were collected in CDC traps, and 6,309 (864 males and 5,445 females) were collected in Shannon traps. The highest frequencies, abundances and densities were of the genera Nyssomyia, Psychodopygus and Trichophoromyia collected in wild, peri and intradomiciliary environments. Nyssomyia shawi predominated in the Seringal Cachoeira, and the Trichophoromyia spp. (Th. auraensis/Th. ruifreitasi) in the Seringal Floresta. Species of the genus Psychodopygus predominated in the rainy season while those of Nyssomyia in the dry period. Natural infections by Leishmania spp were detected in Brumptomyia sp., Nyssomyia antunesi, Ny. shawi, Lutzomyia sherlocki, Psathyromyia aragaoi, Psychodopygus carrerai carrerai, Ps. davisi, Ps. hirsutus hirsutus, Ps. llanosmartinsi, Ps. lainsoni, Trichophoromyia ubiquitalis and Trichophoromyia sp. Morphological and morphometric analyses of Trichophoromyia females were suggested to distinguish Th. octavioi from Trichophoromyia spp (Th. auraensis/Th. ruifreitasi), Pa. elizabethdorvalae being described for the first time. Conclusions. ACL in Xapuri presents one profile of wild transmission and another of domiciliar transmission. Both populations, human and canine, because they live in forest environments are exposed to a high diversity of vectors and etiological agents, which increases the risk of ACL infection. The information presented here may guide the measures of control, planning of actions and definition of priorities taken by the organs of surveillance and epidemiology of the State of Acre, aiming at the early diagnosis and appropriate treatment of the human cases in Xapuri

L’utilisation de matières résiduelles fertilisantes (MRF) dans les plantations de peupliers hybrides (PEH) au Québec pourrait en maximiser la productivité et le volume marchand. Elle présenterait aussi l’avantage de minimiser l’enfouissement ou l’incinération des MRF. Cependant, le dosage des MRF doit être calibré en fonction de la réponse optimale des arbres. L’étude a été réalisée dans une plantation de PEH en Estrie. Un dispositif expérimental comprenant deux blocs (répétitions) de cinq parcelles - un témoin et quatre traitements de combinaisons de biosolides papetiers et de boue de chaux - y a été mis en place à l’automne 2012 et au printemps 2013, soit trois ans avant l’échantillonnage (été 2015). Les traitements représentaient les doses suivantes : 140 et 15 t ha-1 (humides), 140 et 30 t ha-1, 240 et 15 t ha-1 et 240 et 30 t ha-1 de biosolides et de boue de chaux, respectivement. Les propriétés physico-chimiques du sol et la morphologie et la nutrition des PEH ont été évaluées. Nous avons observé un effet très significatif des traitements de MRF sur la croissance des PEH par rapport aux parcelles non traitées. La hauteur des arbres a augmenté de 1,6 à 2 fois, le diamètre de 2,5 à 4 fois, la surface foliaire de 3 à 8 fois et le poids foliaire de 2,7 à 9 fois dans les parcelles traitées comparativement aux arbres des parcelles non traitées. Toutefois, aucune différence significative n’a pu être constatée entre les différents amendements. Les analyses de nutrition foliaire ont, quant à elles, démontré que la fertilisation avec les MRF permettait de pallier la faible disponibilité des nutriments dans le sol. Ainsi, avec l’ajout de MRF, les macronutriments N, P, K et Ca dans les feuilles se situaient à l’intérieur des plages de concentrations optimales, alors que sans MRF, les feuilles montraient des concentrations sous ces seuils. Malgré les faibles différences observées entre les quatre amendements, le traitement combinant 240 t ha-1 de biosolides et 15 t ha-1 de chaux est celui qui se rapprochait le plus d’une nutrition optimale pour le PEH. Les biosolides papetiers en combinaison avec la boue de chaux donnent des résultats très encourageants en ce qui a trait à la nutrition foliaire et le rendement des plantations du PEH lors des premières années d’établissement. / The use of fertilizing residual materials (FRM) in hybrid poplar (HP) plantations in Quebec could maximize yields and merchantable volumes. It would also have the advantage of minimizing the burial (landfill) or incineration of FRM. However, applications rates of FRM must be calibrated for an optimal response of the trees. The study was conducted in a PEH plantation in the Eastern Townships. An experimental design comprising two blocks (repetitions) of five plots - one control and four combinations of papermill biosolids and lime sludge - was established in fall 2012/spring 2013 and sampling was conducted three years later (summer 2015). The treatments represented the following application rates: 140 and 15 t ha-1 (wet), 140 and 30 t ha-1, 240 and 15 t ha-1 and 240 and 30 t ha-1 of biosolids and lime, respectively. Soil properties as well as morphology and nutrition of HP were evaluated. We observed a highly significant treatment effect on HP growth compared to untreated plots. The height of HP trees in the treated plots increased by 1.6 to 2 times, diameter by 2.5 to 4 times, leaf area by 3 to 8 times and the foliar weight by 2.7 to 9 times compared to the trees in the untreated plots. However, there was no significant difference among the various treatments. Foliar nutrition analyses showed that fertilization with FRM was sufficient to compensate for the low availability of nutrients in the soil. Thus, with FRM application, the macronutrients N, P, K and Ca in the leaves were within the optimal concentration ranges, whereas without FRM, the leaves showed concentrations below these thresholds. Despite the small differences observed among the four amendments, the treatment combining 240 t ha-1 of biosolids and 15 t ha-1 of lime was the one the closest to the optimal nutrition for HP. Papermill biosolids in combination with lime sludge provide very encouraging results in regard to foliar nutrition and yields of HP plantations.

Die vorliegende Studie analysiert die Politische Ökonomie von Forstplantagen in den Tropen. Die Analyse der Makroebene zeigt dabei eine globale Perspektive auf, sowie historische Veränderungen von Paradigmen in Bezug zu Waldplantagen. Der zweite Teil der Studie analysierte Plantagen auf der Mikro-Ebene im Hinblick auf divergente geographischen Zusammenhänge, nämlich Paraguay und Indonesien. Fallstudien eignen sich hierbei, um ein vielfältiges Spektrum von Waldplantagen darzustellen, sowie Beispiele für die in der Makroebene abgeleiteten Paradigmen zu illustrieren. Abschließend verbindet die Studie die Entwicklungen der Makro-Ebene mit Belegen aus der Mikro-Analyse. Hierauf ableitend werden Empfehlungen für die Anlage zukünftiger Plantagen getätigt. Die Methodik wurde den Untersuchungsebenen in einem iterativen Prozess angepasst. Der Umfang variiert dabei von Makro- bis Mikroanalysen, sowie vom theoretischen bis zum empirischen Niveau. Auf der Makroebene wurde eine Politische-Ökonomie-Analyse und eine Untersuchung desrelevanten historischen Materials durchgeführt. Weiterhin wurden Plantagen Paradigmen anhand ausgewählter Indikatoren abgegrenzt. Für die Mikroebene wurden Fallstudien mit lokalen Interviews durchgeführt, welche Daten für eine Mehrkriterienanalyse (MCA) lieferten. Die Kombination der Mikro- und Makroanalyse erfolgte durch eine Korrelationsanalyse und wurde durch eine Diskussion abgerundet. Das Forschungsergebnis aus der globalen Analyse ist eine Typologie von sechs Paradigmen und deren Untervarianten, welche als theoretisches und analytisches Werkzeug in der Forschung zu Plantagen dienen können. Die Paradigmen wurden klassifiziert als: i) das vorindustrielle P.; ii) das kolonial industrielle und national industrielle; iii) das Schutzparadigma; iv) das soziale P.; v) das neo-liberale und modifiziert neoliberale P. und vi) das globalpolitische Paradigma. Die Ergebnisse der Fallstudien und MCA zeigen zum einen sichtbare Mängel in Plantagen unter verschiedenen Paradigmen auf und unterstreichen zum anderen positive Effekte bestimmter Paradigmen. Die MCA Bewertungspunkte zeigen zum Beispiel, dass manche Paradigmen mit dem Kriterium Landkonflikt korrelieren, oder präsentieren unterschiedliche lokale Beteiligung auf verschiedenen Plantagen, illustrieren Vorteile, die Plantagen für unterschiedliche Interessengruppen bringen. Die MCA bewertet weiter die Wirtschaftsleistung der Plantagen und vergleicht Faktoren, wie Nutzenverteilung, Rentabilität, Marktzugang und Rahmenbedingungen für Investitionen. Sie analysiert soziale Faktoren, wie Arbeitssicherheit, Zugang zu Dienstleistungen, Beteiligung oder Personalmanagement. Weiterhin werden Umweltprobleme durch die Studie aufgegriffen, z.B. Landnutzungsänderungen, Wasser- oder Boden- Auswirkungen, Lebensraumfunktion usw. Wie die vergleichende Analyse zeigt, ist die modifizierte Neoliberale Paradigma Plantage (Outgrower-Scheme) besonders geeignet, um sowohl soziale als auch wirtschaftliche Vorteile zu sichern (90 % und 84 % in den entsprechenden Feldern gegenüber dem hypothetischen Idealtyp Plantage). Andere Forschungsergebnisse deuten auf wichtige Erkenntnisse bei der Plantagenentwicklung hin, die auf der Plantagen-Ebene und bei der Gestaltung nationaler Rahmenbedingungen für den Plantagensektor berücksichtigt werden sollten. Handlungsempfehlungen für die forstwirtschaftliche, epistemische Gemeinschaft zur Gestaltung der weiteren Diskurse in Bezug auf globalen Plantagen werden ebenfalls diskutiert.

This dissertation is a study of the effects of the abolition of slavery on the economic and political elite of six Texas counties between 1860 and 1890. It focuses on Austin, Brazoria, Colorado, Fort Bend, Matagorda, and Wharton Counties. These areas contain the overwhelming majority of Stephen F. Austin's "Old Three Hundred," the original American settlers of Texas. In addition to being the oldest settled region, these counties contained many of the wealthiest slaveholders within the state. This section of the state, along with the northeast along the Louisiana border, includes the highest concentration of Texas' antebellum plantations. This study asks two central questions. First, what were the effects of abolition on the fortunes of the planter class within these six counties? Did a new elite emerge as a result of the end of slavery, or, despite the liquidation of a substantial portion of their estates, did members of the former planter class sustain their economic dominance over the counties? Second, what were abolition's effects on the counties' prewar political elite, defined as the county judge? Who were in power before the war and who were in power after it? Did abolition contribute to a new kind of politician?

Dès la conquête de la Cochinchine en 1862, l’Administration coloniale et des particuliers français exploitèrent l’agriculture locale et y développèrent l’économie. Ils tentèrent de faire l’essai et d’introduire diverses cultures, en particulier des arbres à caoutchouc. L’année 1897 marqua le début de l’hévéaculture de Cochinchine, lorsqu’on planta avec succès près de deux mille hévéas brasiliensis. La superficie de l’hévéaculture en Cochinchine se développait prodigieusement, allant de cent hectares à la fin du XIXème siècle à près de cent mille hectares au début des années trente, grâce d’une part à des capitaux provenant de la Métropole et, d’autre part à des mesures d’encouragement du Gouvernement colonial. Les plantations d’hévéa attirèrent les travailleurs locaux, surtout en provenance du Tonkin et de l’Annam, à raison d’une dizaine de mille, parfois une vingtaine de mille par an.Parallèlement à l’extension des superficies plantées, la production du caoutchouc de la colonie s’accrut rapidement, allant d’un peu plus d’une tonne en 1908 à plus de soixante mille tonnes en 1939. Les plantations d’hévéa devinrent l’une des cultures les plus importantes de Cochinchine à l’époque coloniale française. Non seulement elles apportèrent la fortune aux planteurs de la colonie, mais elles assurèrent une partie, et depuis 1938, la totalité des besoins de caoutchouc de l’industrie métropolitaine. Les plantations d’hévéa de Cochinchine représentaient un symbole de la colonisation agricole française, mais aussi hélas l’une des pages noires de l’histoire du colonialisme français au Vietnam par l’exploitation brutale des planteurs envers les travailleurs vietnamiens. / As early as the conquest of Cochinchina in 1862, the colonial administration and French individuals exploited the local agriculture and developed the economy there. They tried to experiment and introduce various crops, especially rubber trees. The year of 1897 marked the beginning of the rubber plantation of Cochinchina, when two thousand rubber trees brasiliensis were successfully planted. The area of rubber tree plantation in Cochinchina grew tremendously, ranging from one hundred hectares at the end of the 19th century to nearly one hundred thousand hectares in the early 1930s, because of, on the one hand, the capital invested from the metropolis, and, on the other hand, the measures of encouragement taken by the colonial Government. The rubber plantations attracted local workers, mainly from Tonkin and Annam, at a rate of about 10.000, sometimes 20.000 persons a year. In parallel with the extension of the area of rubber plantation, the colonial rubber production rapidly increased from just over one tonne in 1908 to more than 60.000 tons in 1939.The rubber tree plantation became one of the most important crops of Cochinchina during the French colonial era. Not only they brought fortune to the planters of the colony, but they secured a part, and since 1938, the whole of the rubber demands of the metropolitan industries. The Cochinchina rubber plantations represented a symbol of French agricultural colonization and, unfortunately, one of the black pages of the history of French colonialism in Vietnam by the brutal exploitation of Vietnamese workers by rubber planters.

Die vorliegende Studie analysiert die Politische Ökonomie von Forstplantagen in den Tropen. Die Analyse der Makroebene zeigt dabei eine globale Perspektive auf, sowie historische Veränderungen von Paradigmen in Bezug zu Waldplantagen. Der zweite Teil der Studie analysierte Plantagen auf der Mikro-Ebene im Hinblick auf divergente geographischen Zusammenhänge, nämlich Paraguay und Indonesien. Fallstudien eignen sich hierbei, um ein vielfältiges Spektrum von Waldplantagen darzustellen, sowie Beispiele für die in der Makroebene abgeleiteten Paradigmen zu illustrieren. Abschließend verbindet die Studie die Entwicklungen der Makro-Ebene mit Belegen aus der Mikro-Analyse. Hierauf ableitend werden Empfehlungen für die Anlage zukünftiger Plantagen getätigt. Die Methodik wurde den Untersuchungsebenen in einem iterativen Prozess angepasst. Der Umfang variiert dabei von Makro- bis Mikroanalysen, sowie vom theoretischen bis zum empirischen Niveau. Auf der Makroebene wurde eine Politische-Ökonomie-Analyse und eine Untersuchung desrelevanten historischen Materials durchgeführt. Weiterhin wurden Plantagen Paradigmen anhand ausgewählter Indikatoren abgegrenzt. Für die Mikroebene wurden Fallstudien mit lokalen Interviews durchgeführt, welche Daten für eine Mehrkriterienanalyse (MCA) lieferten. Die Kombination der Mikro- und Makroanalyse erfolgte durch eine Korrelationsanalyse und wurde durch eine Diskussion abgerundet. Das Forschungsergebnis aus der globalen Analyse ist eine Typologie von sechs Paradigmen und deren Untervarianten, welche als theoretisches und analytisches Werkzeug in der Forschung zu Plantagen dienen können. Die Paradigmen wurden klassifiziert als: i) das vorindustrielle P.; ii) das kolonial industrielle und national industrielle; iii) das Schutzparadigma; iv) das soziale P.; v) das neo-liberale und modifiziert neoliberale P. und vi) das globalpolitische Paradigma. Die Ergebnisse der Fallstudien und MCA zeigen zum einen sichtbare Mängel in Plantagen unter verschiedenen Paradigmen auf und unterstreichen zum anderen positive Effekte bestimmter Paradigmen. Die MCA Bewertungspunkte zeigen zum Beispiel, dass manche Paradigmen mit dem Kriterium Landkonflikt korrelieren, oder präsentieren unterschiedliche lokale Beteiligung auf verschiedenen Plantagen, illustrieren Vorteile, die Plantagen für unterschiedliche Interessengruppen bringen. Die MCA bewertet weiter die Wirtschaftsleistung der Plantagen und vergleicht Faktoren, wie Nutzenverteilung, Rentabilität, Marktzugang und Rahmenbedingungen für Investitionen. Sie analysiert soziale Faktoren, wie Arbeitssicherheit, Zugang zu Dienstleistungen, Beteiligung oder Personalmanagement. Weiterhin werden Umweltprobleme durch die Studie aufgegriffen, z.B. Landnutzungsänderungen, Wasser- oder Boden- Auswirkungen, Lebensraumfunktion usw. Wie die vergleichende Analyse zeigt, ist die modifizierte Neoliberale Paradigma Plantage (Outgrower-Scheme) besonders geeignet, um sowohl soziale als auch wirtschaftliche Vorteile zu sichern (90 % und 84 % in den entsprechenden Feldern gegenüber dem hypothetischen Idealtyp Plantage). Andere Forschungsergebnisse deuten auf wichtige Erkenntnisse bei der Plantagenentwicklung hin, die auf der Plantagen-Ebene und bei der Gestaltung nationaler Rahmenbedingungen für den Plantagensektor berücksichtigt werden sollten. Handlungsempfehlungen für die forstwirtschaftliche, epistemische Gemeinschaft zur Gestaltung der weiteren Diskurse in Bezug auf globalen Plantagen werden ebenfalls diskutiert.:CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH DESIGN 1 1.1 Introduction: The Changing Climate for Plantations 1 1.2 Problems with defining forest plantations 4 1.3 Aim and structure of the study 6 1.4 Theory: Political Economic Approaches to Forestry 8 1.4.1 Political economy’s field of investigation 8 1.4.2 Applications to forestry research 12 1.4.3 Theoretical approach in this study 14 1.5 Research Design 18 1.5.1 Theoretical framework 18 1.5.2 Goals and Objectives of the study 20 CHAPTER 2 – METHODOLOGY 22 2.1 Overview of the methodology and data gathering techniques 22 2.2 Methodology in studying paradigm change 23 2.3 Methodology applied in case-studies 26 2.3.1 Case selection 26 2.3.2 Data gathering for the comparative multiple case-study and MCA 30 2.3.3 Questionnaire design 32 2.4 Methodological issues in integrating the levels 35 2.5 Methodology for alternative explanations to the paradigm concept 35 2.6 Research ethics 36 CHAPTER 3 – TROPICAL FOREST PLANTATIONS AND THE GLOBAL ECONOMY: FROM TIMBER TRADE TO CARBON OFFSETTING 37 3.1 Raw material for international markets 39 3.2 Adding value domestically: Shift in the role and scale of tropical plantations 42 3.3 From Rio until the present: Certification and carbon forestry? 46 3.4 Necessary expansion of plantations, uncertain impacts 50 3.5 From the political economy to the plantation paradigms 53 CHAPTER 4 – PLANTATION PARADIGMS AND A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE ON FOREST PLANTATIONS 55 4.1 Roots and applications of the concept of a paradigm in forestry 55 4.2 Global political and social context for plantation forestry 57 4.3 Typology of Plantation Paradigms 60 4.4 Empirical application of the paradigm typology 69 4.4.1 Country Case I: Paradigms and the development of plantations in Paraguay 69 4.4.2 Country Case II: Paradigms and the development of plantations in Indonesia 73 CHAPTER 5 – PLANTATIONS FROM A LOCAL PERSPECTIVE: CASE STUDIES OF SELECTED PLANTATIONS FROM PARAGUAY AND INDONESIA 84 5.1 Plantation case studies in Paraguay 84 5.1.1 Case study I: Smallholder plantation with development aid, San Pedro Department 84 5.1.2 Case study II: Smallholder plantation with Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Paraguarí Department 86 5.1.3 Case study III: Out-grower schemes in Itapúa Department 88 5.1.4 Case study IV: Enterprise POMERA, Alto Parana Department 90 5.2 Plantation case studies in Indonesia 92 5.2.1 Case study V: Community plantation through Community Forest Owners Association APHR, Wonosobo Regency, Java 92 5.2.2 Case study VI: State enterprise Perum Perhutani, Randublatung Reg., Java 94 5.2.3 Case study VII: Enterprise Musi Hutan Persada (MHP), Muara Enim Regency, Sumatra 96 5.3 Multi-Criteria-Analysis of the plantation case studies 99 CHAPTER 6 – INTEGRATION AND DYNAMICS BETWEEN THE GLOBAL, NATIONAL, AND LOCAL LEVELS 104 6.1 Comparative analysis: Global paradigms and the local performance of selected plantations. Assumptions vs. Observations 104 6.1.1 Industrial national paradigm reflected in Case study VI (Perum Perhutani in Randublatung, Indonesia) 105 6.1.2 Social paradigm reflected in Case study I (PMRN in Paraguay) and Case study V (Community Forest Owners Association in Indonesia) 108 6.1.3 Neoliberal paradigm reflected in Case study IV (POMERA in Paraguay) and Case study VII (MHP in Indonesia) 111 6.1.4 Neoliberal modified paradigm reflected in Case study III (Out-grower scheme in Itapúa, Paraguay) 115 6.1.5 Global political paradigm reflected in Case study II (CDM in Paraguay) 118 6.2 Explaining divergences – on the unpredicted observations 121 6.3 Strengths and weaknesses of the studied paradigms 127 CHAPTER 7 – METHODOLOGICAL CHALLENGES AND ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS 129 7.1 Methodological challenges of the paradigm approach 129 7.2 The paradigm concept and alternative explanations 130 7.3 Other limitations of the political economic research on plantations 133 7.3.1 Problem with reliable data and changing plantation definitions 134 7.3.2 Problems of explorative research 134 7.3.3 Problems with indicator setting 134 7.3.4 Problem of single-case study dominance 135 CHAPTER 8 – LESSONS LEARNED 136 8.1 Lessons from the global historical paradigm analysis 136 8.2 Lessons from the case studies 138 8.2.1 Paraguay 138 8.2.2 Indonesia 140 8.2.3 Best practices from the local plantation case studies 143 8.3 Conclusions 150 8.4 Outlook: The future political economy of tropical forest plantations 154 8.5 Next steps – identifying further research gaps and directions 155 REFERENCES 157 ANNEXES Annex to Chapter 3 178 3.1 Historical global plantations’ development with a focus on the species 178 Annex to Chapter 4 181 4.1 Word Forestry Congresses 1926-2009: Snapshots on key issues in forestry, tropical forestry and plantations 181 4.2 Changing plantation discourse: a content analysis of Unasylva 193 Annex to Chapter 5 199 5.1 Steps of the MCA analysis 199 5.1.1 Data normalization table 199 5.1.2 Clusters of indicators used in the data analysis 202 5.1.3 Final synthetic index 204 5.2 Questionnaires 204 Annex to Chapter 6 208 6.1 Detailed Comparative analysis: Global paradigms and the local performance of selected plantations. Assumptions vs. observations 208 6.1.1 Comparative figures 209 6.1.2 Comparative analysis according to the paradigms 217 6.1.3 Summary of confirmed and unobserved elements 235 6.1.4 Correlation analysis 236

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Ålgräs fungerar som ekosystemingenjörer som förser både människan och naturen med en mängd viktiga ekosystemtjänster och tillhandahåller olika ekosystemfunktioner. Ålgräsängens vegetation skapar en fysisk struktur till den annars kala, mjuka ler- eller sandbottnen och ökar den biologiska mångfalden. En annan viktig funktion som ålgräsängar skapar är habitat som fungerar som barnkammare för olika fiskarter, såsom torsk, flundror och sej. Det uppskattas att cirka 30% av de kända arealerna av ålgräsängar har försvunnit globalt och att 7% försvinner årligen. I Sverige kan liknande historiska förluster av ålgräs visas, bara i Bohuslän har 60% försvunnit sedan 1980-talet och ålgräsängarna fortsätter att minska till följd av fortsatt exploatering av kustområden. I detta projekt har vi undersökt ålgräsets förmåga till etablering samt dess tillväxt efter förflyttning och omplantering i ett nytt habitat vid Hallands kust. Plantering av ålgräs har inte tidigare gjorts i Halland och syftet med denna studie var att se om plantering var möjligt och hur stor tillväxt det sker på blad samt antal nya tillväxande vegetativa skott.Våra resultat visade att det fanns signifikanta skillnader för ålgräsets överlevnad mellan de tre olika metoder som vi utförde vid plantering. Vår metod singelskottsmetoden visade sig vara mest lyckad vid platsen, som låg på ett område med relativt hög våg- och vindexponering, vilket vi anser är typiskt för den Halländska kusten. De andra två metoderna, nätmetoden samt grillspettsmetoden, som användes inkluderade förankring av plantorna vilket resulterade i sämre överlevnad. Detta kan ha berott på att det fanns flera stressfaktorer vid platsen som vågor, vind och algpåväxt och att förankring störde ålgräsets etablering. / Eelgrass act as ecosystem engineers, providing both humans and nature with a variety of important ecosystem services and providing various ecosystem functions. The vegetation that eelgrass beds provide is a physical structure to the otherwise bare, soft clay or sand seabed and increases biodiversity. Another important function that eelgrass beds provide is that they create habitats that act as nurseries for various fish species, such as cod, flounder and pollock. It is estimated that around 30% of the known areas of eelgrass meadows have disappeared globally and that 7% is decreasing annually. In Sweden, similar historical losses of eelgrass can be seen, only in Bohuslän, 60% has disappeared since the 1980s and continues to decrease as a result of continued exploitation of coastal areas.  In this project, we have investigated the ability of eelgrass to establish as well as its growth after relocation and replanting in a new habitat on the coast of Halland. Planting of eelgrass has not previously been done in Halland, so the purpose of this study was to see if this was possible and how much growth occurs on leaves and the amount of new growing vegetative shoots. Our results showed that there were significant differences in the survival of the eelgrass between the three different methods we used when planting. Our method the single-shoot method proved to be most successful at the site, which was in an area with relatively high wave and wind exposure, which we believe is typical for the coast of Halland. The other two methods used, the netmethod and skewermethod, included anchoring the plants which resulted in poorer survival. This may have been because there were several stress factors at the site such as waves, wind and algae growth and that anchoring disturbed the establishment of the eelgrass.

Cette recherche est le fruit d'une étude de terrain réalisée au Mali auprès de groupes de femmes en milieu rural bambara. Elle a pour principal objectif d'accroître notre compréhension du processus d'adoption et de gestion de la haie vive améliorée en prêtant un intérêt particulier à la sociologie de la famille et aux rapports de genre. La démarche poursuivie est de type qualitatif et elle se base sur des entrevues dirigées, principalement menées sous forme de triades, ainsi que sur la méthode active de recherche participative (MARP). Beaucoup plus qu'un simple objet technique, la haie vive améliorée est révélatrice des dynamiques sociales rencontrées sur le terrain. Les rapports de pouvoir entre les sexes ainsi qu'entre les générations, qui s'expriment à travers le contrôle des ressources productives et la division familiale du travail, sont quelques-uns des facteurs qui influenceront nécessairement le rapport des femmes à la technique. Plus globalement, c'est l'enjeu du développement qui est abordé et qui pose la question du changement social dans les sociétés africaines.

The research was undertaken to investigate the impact of the Tshivhase Tea Estate on the space economy of Venda, the people and area ofMapate, and Duthuni, among whom the Tea Estate is established. The approach is based on principles. Principles of development theory are combined with appropriate spatial models. The development reality of Venda, together with many other development projects are analysed. Does the tea estate address the rural poverty problem? Findings are presented from a case study of Tshivhase and this proved the lack of growth and development impulses to alleviate the poverty of the rural people among whom it is located. Development is considered in terms of its possible simultaneous diffusion of economic activity and modernisation in all four dimensions of the spatial system : political, socio-cultural, economic and physical. / Department of Geography / M.A. (Geography)