O trabalho é uma análise comparada de cinco mecanismos de política urbana praticados em quatro países diferentes: EUA, França, Colômbia e Brasil. Esses mecanismos têm como característica principal o financiamento de melhorias na infraestrutura urbana, com recursos gerados por parte da valorização imobiliária, e apropriados por meio desses mecanismos. São eles: Transfer of Development Rights (TDR) nos EUA, Leyes de la Plusvalia na Colômbia, Zones d´Aménagement Concertée (ZAC) na França, CEPACs e Outorga Onerosa em São Paulo, Brasil. O objetivo do trabalho é identificar princípios e regras comuns entre eles, e analisar suas diferenças mais significativas, e as razões para isso. Os mecanismos são apresentados individualmente e, em seguida, comparados quanto a suas características principais: histórico e objetivos de sua implantação, estrutura legal, método de formação do preço ou valor a ser pago, momento do pagamento e eficácia na geração de benefícios urbanísticos. / This work is a comparative analysis of five different mechanisms or urban policy as they are practiced in four different countries: the USA, France, Colombia and Brazil. The main characteristic these mechanisms have in common is the financing of improvements in the urban infrastructure with resources generated by the increase in value or real estate, and the corresponding capture part of that increase in value. The mechanisms analyzed are: Transfer of Development Rights (TDR) in the USA, Leyes de la Plusvalia, in Colombia, Zones d\'Aménagement Concertée (ZAC) in France, Certificados de Potencial Adicional de Construção (CEPACs) and Outorga Onerosa do Direito de Construir, São Paulo, Brazil. The objective of this work is to identify the principles and rules that they share, analyze the most relevant differences and the reasons for those differences. Each of the mechanisms is presented individually, followed by a comparison of their main characteristics: its objective and history, legal structure, price or value formation, moment of payment, and its effectiveness in generating urban improvement.

External policy of the European Union as it is defined by the Lisbon Treaty incorporates, among others, the development cooperation policy and the Common foreign and security policy. Development assistance, as a shared policy, represents a traditional form of cooperation between the Union and the developing countries and as such works as a mean to promote the objectives of its external policy. On the other hand the Common foreign and security policy was established by the Maastricht Treaty and until today the decisions made depend on the will of the Member states. The aim of this thesis is to analyze how the European Union uses the development cooperation to achieve the objectives of its external policy and to demonstrate, that using the means of the Common foreign and security policy is essential as well. To do this, the thesis will study the African Great Lakes region in particular.

A expansão da cana-de-açúcar tem ocorrido de maneira intensa no cenário brasileiro, especialmente no estado de São Paulo e região Centro-Oeste do Brasil, com potencial de causar significativos impactos destacando-se a degradação do solo, a poluição dos recursos hídricos, a pressão sobre outras culturas ou matas nativas, conflitos pelo uso do solo, entre outros. O objetivo dessa pesquisa é avaliar a aplicação de técnicas de modelagem do uso do solo em conjunto com instrumentos de política ambiental por meio da modelagem da expansão da cana-de-açúcar na bacia do Tietê/Jacaré (UGRHI 13). A bacia hidrográfica em questão caracteriza-se pela presença de regiões de alta vulnerabilidade ambiental, em termos da fragilidade do território e presença de atributos ambientais de significativo interesse, bem como pelo fato de suas principais atividades econômicas estarem vinculadas ao agronegócio. Para a consecução dos objetivos estabelecidos, o modelo GEOMOD presente na plataforma IDRISI foi aplicado para a projeção da expansão da cana-de-açúcar em 2019. De modo a verificar a aplicabilidade das informações geradas, a projeção gerada foi cotejada a dois instrumentos de planejamento regional: o Zoneamento Agroambiental do Setor Sucroalcooleiro e o Plano de Bacia da UGRHI 13. Constatou-se que a aplicação de modelos de uso do solo para a projeção de alterações nos padrões de ocupação do território apresenta-se como prática promissora que pode ser integrada ao planejamento e gestão ambiental a nível regional, sendo, entretanto, necessário melhorar a performance do modelo elaborado a fim de gerar informações mais confiáveis para os tomadores de decisão. / Sugarcane expansion has been significant in Brazil, especially in São Paulo State and Midwest Region. This crop has potential of causing significant impacts, such as: soil degradation, pollution of water resources, pressure on other crops or native forests, conflicts regarding land use, among others. The purpose of this study is to verify the application of land use cover change models with environmental policy instruments by modeling sugarcane expansion in Tietê/Jacaré watershed (UGRHI 13). This water basin is characterized by high vulnerability environmental areas in terms of fragility territorial and presence of significant environmental attributes, as well as the fact that its main economic activities are linked to agribusiness. GEOMOD land use cover change model was applied to project sugarcane expansion in 2019. In order to verify the applicability of sugarcane projection, it was used in the context of the Sugarcane Agro-Industry Zoning and the Water Basin Plan. The results showed that land use cover change models application for sugarcane projection is presented as a promising practice that can be integrated to the regional environmental planning. However, it´s necessary to improve the performance of the model in order to generate more reliable information to the decision makers.

The diploma thesis named "The Role Of The State And Nonprofit Organizations In The Solution To The Disabled People Unemployment" is devoted to the ways of solving this negative phenomenon. Those instruments of the employment policy, which are mostly used against the disabled people unemployment are presented here. The use of these state instruments of treatment is sufficient but there are still many issues remaining in the field of unemployment. Especially, the Assisted Employment Service aimed to the employment of disabled people meets very often with the lack of financial support for its operations. This absence of necessary funds is the result of an insufficient legislation in this field. One of the possible effective solutions is the social policy concept which being a new instrument of the public policy plays a challenging role for the whole contemporara society.

Résumé This thesis focuses on the implementation of the active employment policy in the Czech Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany and in particular its use of a time when the labour market is negatively affected by the effects of the economic recession. Financial support provided to employers to create or maintain jobs proved to be crucial, confirming the model used in the Federal Republic of Germany. The analysis of tre nds in the labour market shows increasing importance of implementing active employment policy, which both lead to job creation, but the activation of unemployed persons. The findings of this thesis stems can be applied throughout the Czech Republic. Some m easures to increase employment can be implemented without significant interference, in a change in methodology, but some must be implemented on the basis of political acceptability.

This Master's thesis on 'Family policy towards multiple children' addresses the current issue of Czech family policy towards families with special needs using the example of family policy towards multiple children. The objective of the thesis is to identify the living conditions of families with multiple children in the Czech Republic and to find out how family policy and other related policies reflect the needs of such families, analyze state support for families and support structures involved in this area of family support, to identify possible defects and then propose possible changes in this area. This thesis works with theoretical concepts: the theory of poverty, the theory of social exclusion , the theory of the welfare state, the human capital theory and the concept of public interest. This thesis employs the following methods: semi-structured interviews with actors, analysis of secondary data or stakeholder's analysis, problem tree analysis and formulation of variants. The conclusion of the work is that, despite the existing measures in the field of family policy, the concept of family policy has not yet taken into account families with multiple children and the support structures examined in this thesis are not yet sufficient in the case of families with multiple children. This thesis...

This thesis presents the theme of low political awareness of adult citizens in the Czech Republic from the perspective of public policy. Low level of political awareness is conceived as a major reason that voters are not able to vote according to their real interests. The focus is on whether the problem is a topic that public policy should pursue and whether it is possible to find a public policy tools to deal with it. It is mainly based on the three-dimensional model of political sophistication, Evert Vedung's concept of public policy instruments, the concept of the correct voting and ideas of participatory democracy. Despite the fact that the given issue bears the hallmarks of an ideal problem for public policy and we can find some tools that could improve the current situation, there are broader factors that hinder their operations. These include the impact of previous undemocratic regime or the behavior of politicians. Such barriers are closely related to the way of human thinking and can be removed only with difficulty.

En Europe le processus de subsidiarisation des politiques sociales et de l’emploi (Kazepov, 2010) impacte fortement les réseaux locaux d’acteurs liés à la mise en place de nouvelles politiques actives (van Berkel et Borghi, 2007 ; Heidenreich et Rice, 2016). Ses conséquences sont gérées au quotidien par les professionnels intervenant auprès des citoyens. Ils expliquent aux usagers les fractures d’un Etat social en phase de transition – d’une socialisation des risques collectifs à une responsabilité individuelle de la protection (Bresson, Colomb et Gaspar, 2015 ; Andreotti, Mingione et Polizzi, 2012) – et ils donnent du sens aux frontières institutionnelles, géographiques et sociales (Ferrera, 2005), construites entre les dispositifs des politiques actives.La question de recherche de cette thèse vise à montrer en quoi le modèle européen de politiques actives de l’emploi structure les pratiques et les fonctionnements de nouveaux systèmes locaux de welfare. Pour y répondre elle aborde les stratégies d’acteurs face aux antinomies causées par la dimension rhétorique du nouveau welfare actif (Bifulco, 2005) et la dimension pratique de la crise des financements. Il s’agit donc de traiter la question des marges de manœuvre des street level bureaucrates (Lipsky, 1980) pour faire face au changement et donner du sens à des directives européennes souvent éloignées des terrains d’intervention et des caractéristiques des publics cibles.Au niveau théorique, l’objectif de ce travail de recherche est de proposer un cadre conceptuel capable d’expliquer le processus de subsidiarisation et de l’activation de l’Etat social à partir de ses effets. Notre hypothèse de travail nous amène à explorer une corrélation entre les politiques actives de l’emploi et : 1. la fragmentation territoriale des institutions et des réseaux d’acteurs ; 2. la spécialisation des services publics de l’emploi ; 3. les nouveaux instruments de contractualisation ; 4. la professionnalisation et précarisation des intervenants.A l’aide d’une recherche comparative en France et en Italie, nous proposons une analyse des stratégies professionnelles intervenant dans les politiques sociales d’insertion en faveur des jeunes. A propos de politiques de jeunesse, elles nous montrent les composantes des systèmes locaux de welfare (Loncle, 2011) et dessinent les modalités de protection sociale pour les nouvelles générations. En outre, depuis la mise en place de la Stratégie Européenne de l’Emploi en 1997 et le Pacte Européen pour la jeunesse en 2005, elles indiquent les modalités de transition vers l’âge adulte et définissent les critères d’employabilité dans le marché de l’emploi européen. Nous privilégions la méthode spécifique des vignettes (Barter et Renold, 2000 ; Finch, 1987 ; Hughes et Huby, 2002) afin de montrer les coulisses et les stratégies d’acteurs dans le processus d’activation. Nous complétons ces matériaux d’enquête avec des entretiens semi-directifs et des observations participantes visant à interroger différents niveaux d’acteurs, institutionnels et professionnels, liés à la restructuration du welfare local. / In Europe the subsidiarisation process of social policies and employment strategy impacts the local networks of actors linked to the development of new active policies. Its consequences are managed daily by professionals working with citizens. They explain to users fractures of a welfare state in transition - from a socialization of collective risks to an individual responsibility of protection- and they give meaning to the institutional boundaries , geographical and social , built between active political devices.The research question of this thesis is to show how the European model of active employment policy structure practices and operations of new premises of welfare systems. To answer it discusses the strategies of actors face the contradictions caused by the rhetorical dimension of the new active welfare and the practical dimension of the crisis of funding. It is therefore addressing the issue of flexibilities of street level bureaucrats to deal with change and make sense of often remote European directives intervention courses and characteristics of target audiences.At the theoretical level, the objective of this research is to propose a conceptual framework to explaining the process of subsidiarisation and activation of the welfare state from its effects. Our working hypothesis leads us to explore a correlation between active employment policies and : 1. the territorial fragmentation of institutions and stakeholder networks ; 2. the specialization of public employment services; 3. the new instruments of contracts ; 4. professionalization and casualization of stakeholders.Using a comparative research in France and Italy, we offer an analysis of professional strategies involved in social integration policies for young people. About youth policy, they show the components of the local systems of welfare (Loncle, 2011) and draw welfare conditions for the new generations. In addition, since the implementation of the European Employment Strategy in 1997 and the European Youth Pact in 2005, they indicate the transition arrangements to adulthood and define the criteria of employability in the market European employment. We prefer the specific method thumbnails (Barter and Renold, 2000; Finch, 1987; Hughes and Huby, 2002) to show the scenes and actors strategies in the activation process. We complet these survey materials with semi-structured interviews and participant observation to examine different levels of actors, institutions and professionals related to the restructuring of the local welfare.

Den biologiska mångfalden och förlusten av den medför effekter på såväl ekosystem som människan. I jordbruket är mångfald i form av god variation av naturtyper och arter en central del för att tillgodose att ekosystemtjänster som odlingslandskapet är beroende av främjas samt för att uppnå de miljökvalitetsmål som beslutats av den svenska riksdagen. Syftet med studien är att undersöka om det finns hinder till att miljömålen “Ett rikt växt- och djurliv” och “Ett rikt odlingslandskap” inte har en positiv utveckling gällande statusen av den biologiska mångfalden i odlingslandskapet. Vad det finns för möjligheter att bemöta de identifierade förklaringarna ska också undersökas. Med hjälp av en kvalitativ innehållsanalys tolkas textinnehåll från två kvalitativa intervjuer och två myndighetsdokument. De teoretiska ramverken politisk ekologi och stigberoende används för att relatera till resultatet och bidra till att förklara bakgrunden till varför målen inte nås och således att den biologiska mångfalden missgynnas. Studiens resultat påvisar att det finns strukturella begränsningar som kan förklara varför utvecklingen ser ut som den gör och det härleder till ekonomiska, politiska och sociala hinder. Hindren har uppstått genom utarmningen av jordbruksmark till följd av den historiska utvecklingen, bristande styrmedel och lönsamhetskrav samt individers inställningar. Möjligheter har identifierats men det går inte genom denna studie att säga om dessa är tillräckliga för att bemöta hindren. / Biodiversity and the loss of it have effects on ecosystems as well as humans. In the agricultural landscape, diversity in the form of a good variety of natural types and species is a key part to ensure that ecosystem services that the agricultural landscape depends on are promoted and to meet the environmental quality goals decided by the Swedish Parliament. The purpose of the study is to investigate whether there are explanations or obstacles to why the environmental goals "A rich plant and animal life" and "A rich agricultural landscape" do not have a positive development regarding the status of biodiversity in the agricultural landscape. What the possibilities are that can respond to the identified explanations must also be investigated. Textual content has been interpreted from two qualitative interviews and two official documents with the help of a qualitative content analysis. The theoretical frameworks of political ecology and path dependence have been used to relate to the results and help explain the background of why the goals are not reached and thus biodiversity is disadvantaged. The study's results demonstrate that there are structural limitations that can explain why the development looks the way it does and that it originates from economic, political and social obstacles. The obstacles have emerged from the depletion of agricultural land as a result of historical development, lack of policy instruments and regulations, profitability and the attitudes of individuals. Opportunities have been identified but it is not possible with this study to say whether these are sufficient to address the obstacles at hand.

Svenskarna är ibland de som konsumenterna konsumerar mest nötkött i världen, de äter 26 kg per person och år. Matkonsumtionen generellt står för en tredjedel av de svenska hushållens utsläpp av växthusgaser, och g. Globalt sett står djuruppfödningen till köttproduktion för 14,5 % av utsläppen av alla växthusgaser. Kor är idisslare och deras matsmältning avger metangas vilket bidrar mer till växthuseffekten jämfört med uppfödning av andra djur som inte idisslar. För att minska de utsläppen kan antalet nötboskap reduceras. SamtidigtMen, å andra sidan bidrar betande djur till öppna landskap och biologisk mångfald,. och Ddet finns marker som inte lämpar sig för odling ochdär betesdjur kan vara det enda sättet att få avkastning, och hur ., men bBlir dock mängden djur på en bestämd areal för stor tar naturen istället skada. Kor är idisslare och deras matsmältning avger metangas som vilket bidrar till ökad växthuseffekt jämfört med uppfödning av andra djur som inte idisslar. Hur stor miljöpåverkanmycket djuruppfödningen påverkar miljön har varierar emellertid beroende medpå vilka metoder som används i jordbruket. Djurfoder har bland annat identifierats som den största utsläppskällan i produktionssystemet. För att minska miljöpåverkan från jordbruket generellt  och nötköttskonsumtionen speciellt kan ny teknik användas som effektiviserar produktionen. Den framtida utmaningen kommer också att vara handla om att säkra mattillgången för hela världens befolkning. Flertalet studier konkluderar med att en förändring av våra matvanor är ett nödvändigt komplement till andra klimatåtgärder, ändå vidtas inga åtgärder för att minska nötköttskonsumtionen i Sverige.. I den här studien har olika intressenter fått svara på hur de ser på nötköttskonsumtionens påverkan på miljön. De intervjuade var ett urval av politiker och intresseorganisationer. De fick också svara på frågor om hur viktigt de anser det vara att minska konsumtion av nötkött, hur man kan gå till väga för att uppnå det, när och hur stor minskningen bör vara samt hur lång tid det kan ta för att uppnå en förändring.   De tillfrågade erkännervar väl införstådda med att djuruppfödningen påverkar klimatet men lyfte också även andra miljöaspekter lyfts fram. Resultatet visar att viljan var stor att minska klimatpåverkan med hjälp av minskad nötköttskonsumtion. De tillfrågade erkänner att djuruppfödningen påverkar klimatet men även andra miljöaspekter lyfts fram. Många av respondenterna uttalade en oro för att den svenska produktionen skulle drabbas om politiska styrmedel infördes. Gällande storleken på reduktionen av nötköttskonsumtionen rådde relativt stor enighet kring en siffra mellanpå 20 tilloch 50 %. När det kom till hur detta kan uppnås gick dock åsikterna isär. Samtliga respondenter förespråkade informativa styrmedel och fortsatt forskning, några kunde tänka sig ekonomiska styrmedel men ingen var villig att införa administrativa styrmedel. Det står klart att konsumtionen av nötkött har en stor miljöpåverkan och att vi måste minska den för att nå klimatmålen. Med information och fortsatt forskning kan normer brytas och konsumtionsmönster förändras i grunden. Om det behövs kraftigare åtgärder kan ekonomiska styrmedel vara nästa steg. Det finns utrymme för en fortsatt nationell produktion av nötkött samtidigt som konsumtionen minskar. Eftersom alla respondenterna var överens om att en minskning av nötköttskonsumtionen är viktig kan konkreta, nationella mål sättas upp och åtgärder vidtas omgående.Till trots för kunskapen om att nötköttsproduktion är en av de största bidragande faktorerna till utsläpp av växthusgaser globalt och att konsumtion måste minska för att vi skall kunna uppfylla klimatmålen. De flesta av respondenterna var intresserade av att jobba för en minskning av nötköttskonsumtion men visade mindre vilja till mer omfattande åtgärder, vilket kan bero på en oro för att förlora medlemmar eller väljare. Miljö och konsumtion är politiska frågor och risken kan vara större att politikerna mister väljare i generationen miliennials eftersom en förändring mot minskad köttkonsumtion generellt redan är igång bland dem. / About one third out of the greenhouse gases produced by the Swedish households come from food consumption, with Sswedes being among the worlds’ larbiggest consumers of beef; consuming roughly, 26 kg per person and year. Beef consumption accounts for approximately 7 % of the Swedish greenhouse gas emissions which is not negligible. While the consumption of beef has been identified in many previous studies to impact the environment negatively,G grazing animals can contribute to a healthy environment by keeping landscapes open, thereby supporting biodiversity. , and there is land more suitable for grazing than for growing crops. However, if the number of animals is too large it will lead to environmental damage., and ruminants contribute to greenhouse gas emissions by producing methane whilst digesting. The magnitude of the environmental impact from agriculture depends on what methods are used, but the cultivation of feed has been identified as the greatest cause of environmental damage in the production system of livestock. New technology could be used to reduce the environmental impacts from agriculture and the consumption of beef. Food security will be a challenge for the future, with the rising global population and changing conditions for agricultural practices in many areas. Several studies have concluded that adapting our diets is necessary to complement other climate mitigation measures. Yet, not much is done to reduce the beef consumption. Thise study was performed by interviewing different stakeholders regarding their views on beef consumption, where the interviewees respondents were a sample of politicians and relevant organization representatives. They were asked about the importance of reducing beef consumption in order to reach environmental targets, and methods ofor doing so; how great the reduction ought to be, as well as within what time perspective we ought to see changes in consumption. The results showed a willingness to change and reduce the beef consumption due to its environmental impacts. The climate effects from livestock were recognised and other environmental aspects were also highlighted. Most respondents were able to quantifypresent a number of how much they believed meat consumption ought to be reduced, with suggestions ranging from 20 to 50 per cent. Furthermore, all the respondents agreed upon using informational policy instruments and continued scientific work to achieve the suggested aims. A few were additionally in favour of implementing economic policy instruments, but none advised administrative policy instruments as an appropriate measure. It is clearDespite the knowledge that the beef consumption has an extensively negative environmental impact and needs to be addressed, and though most respondents expressed willingness to work for a reduction of the consumption they were still hesitant to introduce any vast measures. This could be due to concerns of losing members or votes. Environmental as well as consuming issues are political matters and the risk of losing votes might be greater if not acting as the young adults, millennials, have already initiated a change toward a more plant based diet.