<p>The integration of planar on-chip light sources is a bottleneck in the implementation of portable planar chip-scale photonic integrated sensing systems, integrated optical interconnects, and optical signal processing systems on platforms such as Silicon (Si) and Si-CMOS integrated circuits. A III/V on-chip laser source integrated onto Si needs to use standard semiconductor fabrication techniques, operate at low power, and enable efficient coupling to other devices on the Si platform.</p><p>In this thesis, thin film strain compensated InGaAs/GaAs single quantum well (SQW) separate confinement heterostructure (SCH) edge emitting lasers (EELs) have been implemented with patterning on both sides of the thin film laser under either growth or host substrate support, with the devices metal/metal bonded to Si and SiO₂/Si substrates. Gain and index guided lasers in various configurations fabricated using standard semiconductor manufacturing processes were simulated, fabricated, and experimentally characterized. Low threshold current densities in the range of 250 A/cm<super>2</super> were achieved. These are the lowest threshold current densities achieved for thin film single quantum well (SQW) lasers integrated on Si reported to date, and also the lowest reported, for thin film lasers operating in the 980 nm wavelength window.</p><p>These thin film EELs were also integrated with photolithographically patterned polymer (SU-8) waveguides on the same SiO₂/Si substrate. Coupling of the laser and waveguide was compared for the cases where an air gap existed between the thin film laser and the waveguide, and in which one facet of the thin film laser was embedded in the waveguide. The laser to waveguide coupling was improved by embedding the laser facet into the waveguide, and eliminating the air gap between the laser and the waveguide. Although the Fresnel reflectivity of the embedded facet was reduced by embedding the facet in the polymer waveguide, leading to a 27.2% increase in threshold current density for 800 &mum long lasers, the slope efficiency of the L-I curves was higher due to preferential power output from the front (now lower reflectivity) facet. In spite of this reduced mirror reflectivity, threshold current densities of 260 A/cm<super>2</super> were achieved for 1000 &mum long lasers. This passively aligned structure eliminates the need for precise placement and tight tolerances typically found in end-fire coupling configurations on separate substrates.</p> / Dissertation

In high performance electronic systems, with increasing chip speed and larger number of processors, the system performance is being limited by off-chip metal interconnects. In such systems, polymer optical waveguides are being considered to replace electrical interconnects because of their high capacity for bandwidth and less constraints on interconnect length. The optical loss in the polymer optical waveguides is the key criterion used to evaluate their performance, and is significantly affected by thermal curing and aging. The evolution of degree-of-cure is determined from differential scanning calorimetry and compared to optical absorption from spectroscopy. Optical loss due to scattering mechanisms is related to local density fluctuations, which is studied using dielectric analysis. Based on the optical loss trends in uncladded and cladded waveguides, the underlying mechanisms for the optical loss variations are proposed and a cure process schedule to realize the lowest optical loss is recommended. Process-induced thermal stresses can also affect the polymer waveguide by introducing stress birefringence. The stress-optical coefficients of the siloxane polymer are extracted and employed in a numerical modeling method to determine the stress-induced birefringence in an optical waveguide system. The thermal-aging dependent optical loss is determined for waveguide samples at several different accelerated temperature conditions. To get the field-use conditions, the temperature distribution in the vicinity of the embedded laser and the polymer waveguide is determined. Using such thermal experimental data, the analytical reliability models were employed to relate the optical loss with time, and provide a practical way of determining whether the optical waveguides would perform within the optical loss budget during field-use conditions.

The aim of the present work was to design and fabricate all purpose, positioning-tolerant and efficient interconnects between single-mode fibers and integrated waveguides out of polymers. The developed structures are part of the optical packaging of integrated optical chips. Integrated optics have gathered tremendous interest throughout recent years from research as well as from the industry, and most likely the demand will further grow in the future. Today’s trend is to establish optical data communication not only in far-distance transmission but also in end-user or so called fiber-to-home configurations, or, in the near future, also on board or even chip level. In addition, integrated optical sensors are gaining more and more importance. In the future, lab-on-a-chip systems may be able to simplify and accelerate analysis methods within health care or allow for a continuous monitoring of almost any environmental variable. All these applications call for robust optical packaging solutions. Many integrated optical chips are using a silicon-on-insulator design. Technologies which were originally intended for the manufacturing of integrated circuits can be utilized for the fabrication of such silicon-on-insulator chips. Point-of-care testing, which is a considerable part of bio-sensing, in some cases only allows the use of disposable transducer elements. The fabrication of these transducers, also including almost all other system parts, may be possible using polymers. Alternative fabrication methods like nanoimprint lithography can be applied for the patterning of polymers. With these, the extension of already known working principles or even entirely new device architectures become feasible for mass production. The direct patterning of polymers by means of nanoimprint was used to fabricate interconnects for integrated waveguides. In contrast to conventional lithography approaches, where a patterned resist layer is used as a masking layer for subsequent process steps, direct patterning allows the immediate use of the structures as functional elements. Firstly, nanoimprint allows diffraction-unlimited patterning with nanometer resolutions as well as the replication of complex three-dimensional patterns. These unique properties were used within this work to pattern shallow gratings atop an integrated waveguide within only one single manufacturing step. The gratings are used as coupling elements and can be utilized either to couple light from external elements to the chip or vice versa. Considerations regarding the optical effects on single-mode polymer waveguides as well as grating couplers were obtained from simulation. They are specific to the chosen design and the used polymer and cannot be found elsewhere so far. Compared to similar designs and fabrication strategies proposed in literature, the ones followed here allow for a higher efficiency. The dimensions and process windows obtained from simulation did serve as a basis for the subsequent fabrication of the grating couplers. All steps which are necessary to turn the calculated design into reality, ranging from master fabrication, to working mold cast and imprint, are shown in detail. The use of a working mold strategy is of crucial importance for the fabrication process and is discussed in detail. The use of a working mold preserves a costly master and further allows for a cost-efficient production. Parameters which are relevant for the production as well as for the final polymer patterns were analyzed and discussed. On the basis of the obtained data, a process optimization was performed. The optical characterization was also part of the presented work. A comparison with the results obtained from simulation is included and additional effects were revealed. Most of them may be subject to further improvement in future designs. In summary, the present work contributes to the field of optical packaging. It shows a viable route for the design and fabrication of interconnects of single-mode polymer waveguides. The presented design can be used as a building block which can be placed at almost any positions within an integrated optical chip. The fabrication method includes a minimum number of process steps and is still able to increase performance compared to similar approaches. Moreover, all process steps allow for scaling and are potential candidates for mass production.

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The aim of the present work was to design and fabricate all purpose, positioning-tolerant and efficient interconnects between single-mode fibers and integrated waveguides out of polymers. The developed structures are part of the optical packaging of integrated optical chips. Integrated optics have gathered tremendous interest throughout recent years from research as well as from the industry, and most likely the demand will further grow in the future. Today’s trend is to establish optical data communication not only in far-distance transmission but also in end-user or so called fiber-to-home configurations, or, in the near future, also on board or even chip level. In addition, integrated optical sensors are gaining more and more importance. In the future, lab-on-a-chip systems may be able to simplify and accelerate analysis methods within health care or allow for a continuous monitoring of almost any environmental variable. All these applications call for robust optical packaging solutions. Many integrated optical chips are using a silicon-on-insulator design. Technologies which were originally intended for the manufacturing of integrated circuits can be utilized for the fabrication of such silicon-on-insulator chips. Point-of-care testing, which is a considerable part of bio-sensing, in some cases only allows the use of disposable transducer elements. The fabrication of these transducers, also including almost all other system parts, may be possible using polymers. Alternative fabrication methods like nanoimprint lithography can be applied for the patterning of polymers. With these, the extension of already known working principles or even entirely new device architectures become feasible for mass production. The direct patterning of polymers by means of nanoimprint was used to fabricate interconnects for integrated waveguides. In contrast to conventional lithography approaches, where a patterned resist layer is used as a masking layer for subsequent process steps, direct patterning allows the immediate use of the structures as functional elements. Firstly, nanoimprint allows diffraction-unlimited patterning with nanometer resolutions as well as the replication of complex three-dimensional patterns. These unique properties were used within this work to pattern shallow gratings atop an integrated waveguide within only one single manufacturing step. The gratings are used as coupling elements and can be utilized either to couple light from external elements to the chip or vice versa. Considerations regarding the optical effects on single-mode polymer waveguides as well as grating couplers were obtained from simulation. They are specific to the chosen design and the used polymer and cannot be found elsewhere so far. Compared to similar designs and fabrication strategies proposed in literature, the ones followed here allow for a higher efficiency. The dimensions and process windows obtained from simulation did serve as a basis for the subsequent fabrication of the grating couplers. All steps which are necessary to turn the calculated design into reality, ranging from master fabrication, to working mold cast and imprint, are shown in detail. The use of a working mold strategy is of crucial importance for the fabrication process and is discussed in detail. The use of a working mold preserves a costly master and further allows for a cost-efficient production. Parameters which are relevant for the production as well as for the final polymer patterns were analyzed and discussed. On the basis of the obtained data, a process optimization was performed. The optical characterization was also part of the presented work. A comparison with the results obtained from simulation is included and additional effects were revealed. Most of them may be subject to further improvement in future designs. In summary, the present work contributes to the field of optical packaging. It shows a viable route for the design and fabrication of interconnects of single-mode polymer waveguides. The presented design can be used as a building block which can be placed at almost any positions within an integrated optical chip. The fabrication method includes a minimum number of process steps and is still able to increase performance compared to similar approaches. Moreover, all process steps allow for scaling and are potential candidates for mass production.

Les plasmons-polaritons de surface (PPS) font figure de plateforme polyvalente très promet- teuse pour le guidage des ondes électromagnétiques à l’échelle nanométrique. Dans ce contexte, le contrôle dynamique de la propagation PPS est d’une importance capitale. Le contrôle actif des dispositifs plasmoniques a souvent été réalisé jusqu’à présent par le biais d’un effet thermo-optique (TO). Toutefois dans la majorité des cas considérés, l’effet thermo-optique résulte d’une modification des propriétés d’un matériaux diélectrique en contact avec le métal supportant le mode plasmon. Ainsi, le rôle des propriétés thermo-optiques du métal lui-même a rarement été analysé aux fréquences télécom dans le cadre d’applications plasmoniques. L’objectif principal de cette thèse est donc d’analyser en détail l’impact des propriétés thermo- optiques des métaux sur différents modes PPS aux longueurs d’ondes télécom. En premier lieu, nous considérons la modulation photo-thermique d’un mode plasmon supporté par un film mince d’or se propageant à l’interface "or/air". Nous démontrons tout d’abord la modulation de la propagation des modes PPS induite par la dépendance des pertes ohmiques de l’or à la température du film mince. Le contrôle de la température du film est obtenu par un effet photo-thermique en régime continu modulé. Les mesures expérimentales de la pro- fondeur de modulation de l’intensité des modes PPS combinées à la simulation numérique de la distribution de température le long du film d’or nous permettent de remonter aux coefficients thermo-optiques de l’or aux fréquences télécoms. Dans un second temps, nous considérons le contrôle thermo-optique de modes plasmons dont le confinement spatial (et donc l’indice effectif) est supérieur à ceux des modes de films. Les modes considérés dans cette seconde étude sont connus sous le nom de "polymer- loaded surface plasmon waveguides (PLSPPWs)". Ces modes présentent un confinement latéral induit par l’indice de réfraction du ruban de polymère déposés sur le film métallique et un confinement vertical résultant de leur nature plasmonique. L’excitation photo-thermique de ces guides plasmoniques dans un régime nano-seconde nous permet de mettre en évidence la dynamique thermo-optique du métal aux temps courts (<1ns) et du polymère aux temps plus longs (<1µs). La même démarche appliquée à un micro-résonateur plasmonique en anneau révèle les temps caractéristiques de la dynamique de diffusion de la chaleur dans le polymère à l’échelle de quelques dizaines de nanomètres. Sur la base de ces expériences, nous suggérons un design de dispositifs plasmoniques thermo-optique dont la bande passante est de l’ordre du megahertz, un ordre de grandeur au-dessus des systèmes thermo-optiques traditionnels. Enfin, nous présentons la modulation photo-thermique de la propagation PPS le long de nanofils d’or fabriqués par lithographie électronique supportant des modes plasmons très confinés aux longueurs d’onde télécom. La transmission d’un signal télécom à 10 Gbit/s est tout d’abord démontrée afin d’établir sans ambiguïté la pertinence de tels guides d’ondes miniatures pour la transmission d’informations à très courtes échelles. Enfin, nous mettons en évidence la modulation photo-thermique de la propagation de tels modes. En particulier, nous investiguons l’influence sur la profondeur de modulation de la polarisation du faisceau pompe relativement à l’orientation des nanofils. Cet effet de polarisation s’explique par une absorption exaltée si la polarisation du faisceau pompe est orientée perpendiculairement à l’axe du nanofil. L’exaltation résulte de l’excitation d’un mode plasmon local selon l’axe transverse du nanofil. / Surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) is the promising versatile platform proposed for guiding electromagnetic waves at nanoscale dimensions. In this context dynamic control of SPPs prop- agation is of paramount importance. Thermo-optical (TO) effect is considered as an efficient technique for performing active control of plasmonic devices. Among the thermo-optical based plasmonic devices demonstrated so far TO coefficient is dominantly provided by a dielectric material on top of the metal sustaining the SPP mode, however, the role of TO properties of the metal has been rarely investigated for plasmonic applications especially at the telecom frequency ranges. Therefore, the aim of this thesis is to investigate in detail the impact of thermo-optical properties of metals onto various SPP modes at telecom wavelengths.First, we report on photo-thermal modulation of thin film SPP mode traveling at gold/air interface excited at telecom wavelengths. We start by investigating the photo-thermally in- duced modulation of SPPs propagation mediated by the temperature dependent ohmic losses in the gold film. Then we extract the thermo-plasmonic coefficient of the SPP mode from the accurately measured SPPs signal depth of modulation by which we could compute the thermo-optical coefficients (TOCs) of gold at telecom wavelength. Lastly, we demonstrate a pulsed photo-thermal excitation of the SPPs in the nanosecond regime.Secondly, we investigate the thermo-optical dynamics of polymer loaded surface plasmon waveguide (PLSPPW) based devices photo-thermally excited in the nanosecond regime. First, we demonstrate thermo-absorption of PLSPPW modes mediated by the temperature-dependent ohmic losses of the metal and the thermally controlled field distribution of the plasmon mode within the metal. Next, we consider the thermo-optical response of a PLSPPW based racetrack shaped resonator coupled to a straight bus waveguide and evaluate the photo-thermal activation through heating and cooling times. We conclude that nanosecond excitation combined to high thermal diffusivity materials opens the way to high speed thermo-optical plasmonic devices.Finally, we report on the photo-thermal modulation of SPPs propagation along litho- graphically fabricated gold nanowires sustaining highly confined plasmonic mode at telecom wavelengths. First, we investigate telecommunication characterization of the nanowires by ap- plying high bit rate signal transmission, 10 Gbit/s, through fiber-to-fiber confocal detection setup. Next, we demonstrate and evaluate the photo-thermal modulation of SPPs propagation along the nanowires where we discuss qualitatively TO effects due to light-induced modula- tions on nanowires and show the impact of the incident beam polarization on the photo-thermal modulation.