This research examines problem definition as the first step in a sequential problem solving process. Seventy-seven managers in four diverse organizations were studied to determine common characteristics of problem definers. Among the variables considered as differentiating problem definers from non-problem definers were cognitive style, personal need characteristics, preference for ideation, experience, level of management, and type and level of education. Six hypotheses were tested using the following instruments: the Problem Solving Inventory, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Schedule, the Preference for Ideation Scale, the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, a Problem Definition Exercise, and a Personal Data Questionnaire. Among the managers studied, only twelve were found to be problem definers. Such small numbers severely limit the ability to generalize about problem definers. However, it is possible that problem definers are scarce in organizations. In terms of cognitive style, problem definers were primarily thinking types who preferred evaluation to ideation in dealing with problems, making judgmental decisions on the basis of collected facts. Problem definers were not predominant at lower levels of the organization. One-third of the problem definers held upper level management positions while another one-fourth were responsible for specialized activities within their organizations, overseeing special projects and individuals much like upper level managers. Sixty-eight of the problem definers had non-business educations with none having more than a bachelors degree. As knowledge and judgment on which to base evaluation expands, managers may become less adept at defining problems and more adept at selecting and implementing alternatives. Several tentative hypotheses can be tested in future research including: 1) determining whether problem definers are scarce in organizations, 2) determining whether problem definers are more prevalent in some types of organizations than others, 3) verifying unique cognitive and personal need characteristics, 4) determining whether non-managers rather than managers have problem defining skills.

Recent studies have advanced our knowledge of factors that could affect problem solving performance, and also of the positive effects of problem solving ability on fitness measures (the ‘what’ of problem solving). However, a missing linkage exists between this ‘what’ and the corresponding ‘how’. Such linkage requires the understanding of how these factors contribute to problem solving. Therefore, the central aim of this thesis is to examine this ‘how’. The roles of learning and behavioural flexibility in the context of problem solving are shown across the experiments, primarily with laboratory and free-ranging grey squirrels and to a lesser extent with wild red squirrels. Under a recurring change, laboratory grey squirrels showed a rapid decrease in the number of errors they made per reversal phase in a serial spatial reversal learning task. Such efficiency is achieved by a gradual tactic change, from sequential to integrative tactics, with increased experience. It also involves support from cognitive mechanisms such as attention and inhibitory control. In a puzzle box task, wild grey squirrels showed that they were better problem solvers than the wild red squirrels. However, red squirrels that solved the puzzle box were more efficient than the grey solvers. Detailed analysis of the results showed that learning and flexibility play independent roles in problem solving. Each process is associated with particular traits that to increase efficiency. For grey squirrels, behavioural selectivity (effective behaviours) and persistence increased with increased experience. Flexibility, however, showed minimal positive effect for them, given that it decreased behavioural selectivity. In contrast, flexibility primarily provided a positive effect for red squirrels’ solving efficiency. These results showed that the two species appear to use both similar and different cognitive processes in solving the task. The discussion gathers the results and explores how learning and flexibility, along with other behavioural traits, vary in their contributions to problem solving performance. As learning and flexibility are definitely not limited in problem solving, the discussion also addresses how these two processes might be involved a construct of general intelligence (‘g’) in animals, and how they are relevant to wilder ecological aspects.

It is hypothesized that group treatment may be more effective than an individual treatment format. The purpose of this study was to address several deficiencies of previous research in contrasting group and individual treatment delivery formats and to assess the differential effectiveness of these two formats. The treatment area chosen was that of early problem drinker treatment as it was relatively easy to control treatment content across treatment formats since detailed content manuals and theory have been well developed in this area. Subjects were selected from those respondents to a media advertisement who passed several screening criteria and were alternately assigned to a group or individual format. A lack of the requisite number of subjects required some specific design changes. Each treatment condition was given a structured eight-week treatment program of once per week meetings of seventy-five minutes each or a wait-list control condition. Statistical contrasts were then performed on the following variables: total drink units per week, maximum drink units per day, Profile of Mood States -a measure of current affective state, Weissman Social Adjustment Scale - a measure of social functioning level, and a general problem checklist. Data units were gathered pre-treatment, weekly during treatment for drink units, at post-treatment follow-up, and at six months following the end of treatment. The other data were gathered pre-treatment, post-treatment, and at the six-month follow-up. Results of the data manipulations indicated that the treatment intervention was associated with greater improvement on alcohol consumptions than a wait-list control group, but that group treatment was not associated with greater treatment gains than the individual format on any measures. These results are given to be tentative given several major limitations of this study which are discussed. The research was found to be relevant in the area of treatment planning, and is interpreted as providing a more theoretically meaningful contrast of the two formats than previously achieved due to greater experimental control of possibly confounding variables. A useful initial test was performed of a treatment program developed for this study which shows promise for helping problem drinkers. It is also suggested that this research provides some important conclusions for the contrast of group and individual formats in psychological interventions generally. Future directions are suggested. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

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LD2668 .T4 1941 J62

Charles Peirce (1839-1914) was one of the most important logicians of the nineteenth century. This thesis traces the development of his algebraic logic from his early papers, with especial attention paid to the mathematical aspects. There are three main sources to consider. 1) Benjamin Peirce (1809-1880), Charles's father and also a leading American mathematician of his day, was an inspiration. His memoir Linear Associative Algebra (1870) is summarised and for the first time the algebraic structures behind its 169 algebras are analysed in depth. 2) Peirce's early papers on algebraic logic from the late 1860s were largely an attempt to expand and adapt George Boole's calculus, using a part/whole theory of classes and algebraic analogies concerning symbols, operations and equations to produce a method of deducing consequences from premises. 3) One of Peirce's main achievements was his work on the theory of relations, following in the pioneering footsteps of Augustus De Morgan. By linking the theory of relations to his post-Boolean algebraic logic, he solved many of the limitations that beset Boole's calculus. Peirce's seminal paper 'Description of a Notation for the Logic of Relatives' (1870) is analysed in detail, with a new interpretation suggested for his mysterious process of logical differentiation. Charles Peirce's later work up to the mid 1880s is then surveyed, both for its extended algebraic character and for its novel theory of quantification. The contributions of two of his students at the Johns Hopkins University, Oscar Mitchell and Christine Ladd-Franklin are traced, specifically with an analysis of their problem solving methods. The work of Peirce's successor Ernst Schröder is also reviewed, contrasting the differences and similarities between their logics. During the 1890s and later, Charles Peirce turned to a diagrammatic representation and extension of his algebraic logic. The basic concepts of this topological twist are introduced. Although Peirce's work in logic has been studied by previous scholars, this thesis stresses to a new extent the mathematical aspects of his logic - in particular the algebraic background and methods, not only of Peirce but also of several of his contemporaries.

Skills in problem solving, including finding and applying the appropriate knowledge to a problem, are important learning outcomes from the completion of a Physics degree at University. This thesis investigates the characteristics of successful and unsuccessful novice University students solving problems in Physics in various contexts. Gaining an insight into student behaviour can clarify areas of weakness and potentially provide research based instructional strategies in these contexts. Access to external information during problem solving, such as the Internet, is becoming an increasingly relevant research area, as students use resources for homework questions and then in employment after University. Three chapters (Chapters 3-5) investigate individual novice problem solving with and without resources, such as a textbook. Participants were from introductory years one and two of Undergraduate study at University. The results from this chapter show successful and unsuccessful approaches by students to multi-step problems. One notable result is that unsuccessful students demonstrated an inability to apply the appropriate physics concepts, with or without the availability of resources. These results have implications for the skills required in closed and open-book exams. Three chapters of the thesis focus on the analysis of Peer Instruction (Chapters 6-8), an instructional method designed to improve conceptual understanding. Peer Instruction was used with a first year Introductory University class. Technical word use was not associated with success on Peer Instruction questions. Conversations were also analysed qualitatively. The results reflect diversity in reasoning regardless of correctness on the question. Some recommendations for the implementation of Peer Instruction are presented. The thesis is organised as follows. A literature review was conducted in relevant areas of study and is presented to set the context of the work. Three chapters report the study with novice individuals solving multi-step problems with and without resources. Three further chapters investigate successful and unsuccessful Peer Instruction discussions in Physics. The final results chapter (Chapter 9) presents a study of a group of experts solving physics problems. Overall successful and unsuccessful problem solving strategies were compared, as well as preliminary comparisons between expert and novice behaviour when solving physics problems.

published_or_final_version / Educational Psychology / Master / Master of Social Sciences