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O presente trabalho avaliou, por medida de conteúdo protéico, análise eletroforética, por determinação da atividade proteolítica e verificação da estabilidade dessa atividade, matérias-primas papaína de dois fabricantes. Formulações géis de Carbopol® 940, Natrosol® 250 HHR e Pluronic® F127, contendo matéria-prima papaína a 1%, foram desenvolvidas e avaliadas quanto à estabilidade e a eficácia in vitro da atividade proteolítica. Os estudos de estabilidade foram conduzidos por medida da atividade proteolítica da papaína, utilizando a caseína como substrato, em amostras armazenadas sob diferentes condições de temperatura e umidade. A eficácia da ação proteolítica in vitro foi avaliada em gel de poliacrilamida, contendo gelatina como substrato. A matéria-prima do fabricante B apresentou maior conteúdo protéico e maior atividade proteolítica do que a matériaprima do fabricante A. Ambas matérias-primas demonstraram estabilidade da atividade funcional, quando armazenadas a 4°C, por um período de 6 meses. Quando armazenadas a 30°C/70%UR e a 40°C/70%UR, houve perda acentuada dessa atividade. A medida da atividade proteolítica das formulações, após 48 horas de sua preparação, mostrou que apenas 8% da atividade funcional total foi detectada. Este resultado pode indicar interação entre a papaína e os componentes das formulações, levando a uma perda da atividade proteolítica, ou uma redução da velocidade da reação enzimática. Os estudos da estabilidade da atividade funcional mostraram que ambas formulações foram estáveis, quando armazenadas a 4°C, por 6 meses. Entretanto, quando armazenadas a 30°C/70%UR e a 40°C/70%UR, foi observada rápida redução da atividade proteolítica, em função do tempo de armazenamento. A avaliação da atividade proteolítica das formulações em gel de poliacrilamida, adicionado de gelatina como substrato, após 6 horas de incubação a 37°C, demonstrou que a formulação gel de Carbopol® 940 foi a mais eficaz, até mesmo superior à formulação extemporânea de matéria-prima papaína 1%, em solução aquosa. Este resultado evidencia que esse polímero foi o mais adequado para veicular a papaína. Além disso, foi o que apresentou maior eficácia proteolítica no teste in vitro. Dessa forma, esta formulação poderá ser empregada para auxiliar o processo de cicatrização de feridas e queimaduras, nos diferentes níveis assistenciais de saúde, com garantia de eficácia, segurança e qualidade. / The present work evaluated by content of protein measurement, electrophoresis, proteolytic activity determination and verification of this activity stability, raw materials of papain obtained from two manufacturers. Gel formulations of Carbopol® 940, Natrosol® 250 HHR and Pluronic® F127, and containing 1% of papain, were developed and evaluated with regard to stability and in vitro efficacy of proteolytic activity. The stability studies were conducted by papain proteolytic activity measurement, using casein as substrate and the samples were stored under different conditions of temperature and humidity. The in vitro efficacy of proteolytic activity was evaluated using polyacrylamide gel containing gelatin as substrate. The raw material obtained from manufacturer B showed higher content of protein and higher proteolytic activity than the one from manufacturer A. Both raw materials showed functional stability when stored at 4°C during 6 months. When stored at 30°C/70% RH and at 40°C/70% RH, there was significant loss of these activities. The measure of formulations proteolytic activity, after 48 hours from its preparation, showed that only 8% of the total activity was detected. This result might indicate possible interactions between papain and formulation components, which lead to a loss in the proteolytic activity or a reduction in the speed of enzymatic reaction. The functional stability studies showed that all formulations were stable when stored at 4°C during 6 months. However, when stored at 30°C/70%RH and 40°C/70%RH, it was observed fast decrease in the proteolytic activity as a function of storage time. The evaluation of formulations proteolytic activity in polyacrylamide gel, added with gelatin as substrate, after 6 hours of incubation at 37°C, showed that Carbopol® 940 gel formulation was the most efficient, being also better than the formulation recently prepared with 1% of papain raw material in aqueous solution. This result demonstrates that this polymer was the most adequate to be incorporated with papain. Besides this, it was the one that showed higher proteolytic efficacy in the in vitro test. Then, this formulation might be employed to help in the wound and burns cicatrisation process, in the different levels of health assistance, with efficacy, security and quality guarantee.

O presente trabalho avaliou, por medida de conteúdo protéico, análise eletroforética, por determinação da atividade proteolítica e verificação da estabilidade dessa atividade, matérias-primas papaína de dois fabricantes. Formulações géis de Carbopol® 940, Natrosol® 250 HHR e Pluronic® F127, contendo matéria-prima papaína a 1%, foram desenvolvidas e avaliadas quanto à estabilidade e a eficácia in vitro da atividade proteolítica. Os estudos de estabilidade foram conduzidos por medida da atividade proteolítica da papaína, utilizando a caseína como substrato, em amostras armazenadas sob diferentes condições de temperatura e umidade. A eficácia da ação proteolítica in vitro foi avaliada em gel de poliacrilamida, contendo gelatina como substrato. A matéria-prima do fabricante B apresentou maior conteúdo protéico e maior atividade proteolítica do que a matériaprima do fabricante A. Ambas matérias-primas demonstraram estabilidade da atividade funcional, quando armazenadas a 4°C, por um período de 6 meses. Quando armazenadas a 30°C/70%UR e a 40°C/70%UR, houve perda acentuada dessa atividade. A medida da atividade proteolítica das formulações, após 48 horas de sua preparação, mostrou que apenas 8% da atividade funcional total foi detectada. Este resultado pode indicar interação entre a papaína e os componentes das formulações, levando a uma perda da atividade proteolítica, ou uma redução da velocidade da reação enzimática. Os estudos da estabilidade da atividade funcional mostraram que ambas formulações foram estáveis, quando armazenadas a 4°C, por 6 meses. Entretanto, quando armazenadas a 30°C/70%UR e a 40°C/70%UR, foi observada rápida redução da atividade proteolítica, em função do tempo de armazenamento. A avaliação da atividade proteolítica das formulações em gel de poliacrilamida, adicionado de gelatina como substrato, após 6 horas de incubação a 37°C, demonstrou que a formulação gel de Carbopol® 940 foi a mais eficaz, até mesmo superior à formulação extemporânea de matéria-prima papaína 1%, em solução aquosa. Este resultado evidencia que esse polímero foi o mais adequado para veicular a papaína. Além disso, foi o que apresentou maior eficácia proteolítica no teste in vitro. Dessa forma, esta formulação poderá ser empregada para auxiliar o processo de cicatrização de feridas e queimaduras, nos diferentes níveis assistenciais de saúde, com garantia de eficácia, segurança e qualidade. / The present work evaluated by content of protein measurement, electrophoresis, proteolytic activity determination and verification of this activity stability, raw materials of papain obtained from two manufacturers. Gel formulations of Carbopol® 940, Natrosol® 250 HHR and Pluronic® F127, and containing 1% of papain, were developed and evaluated with regard to stability and in vitro efficacy of proteolytic activity. The stability studies were conducted by papain proteolytic activity measurement, using casein as substrate and the samples were stored under different conditions of temperature and humidity. The in vitro efficacy of proteolytic activity was evaluated using polyacrylamide gel containing gelatin as substrate. The raw material obtained from manufacturer B showed higher content of protein and higher proteolytic activity than the one from manufacturer A. Both raw materials showed functional stability when stored at 4°C during 6 months. When stored at 30°C/70% RH and at 40°C/70% RH, there was significant loss of these activities. The measure of formulations proteolytic activity, after 48 hours from its preparation, showed that only 8% of the total activity was detected. This result might indicate possible interactions between papain and formulation components, which lead to a loss in the proteolytic activity or a reduction in the speed of enzymatic reaction. The functional stability studies showed that all formulations were stable when stored at 4°C during 6 months. However, when stored at 30°C/70%RH and 40°C/70%RH, it was observed fast decrease in the proteolytic activity as a function of storage time. The evaluation of formulations proteolytic activity in polyacrylamide gel, added with gelatin as substrate, after 6 hours of incubation at 37°C, showed that Carbopol® 940 gel formulation was the most efficient, being also better than the formulation recently prepared with 1% of papain raw material in aqueous solution. This result demonstrates that this polymer was the most adequate to be incorporated with papain. Besides this, it was the one that showed higher proteolytic efficacy in the in vitro test. Then, this formulation might be employed to help in the wound and burns cicatrisation process, in the different levels of health assistance, with efficacy, security and quality guarantee.

This work reviews studies of bovine K-casein and specifically K-casein macropeptide. Properties of K-casein, its structure and heterogeneity, proteolytic activity of some milk clotting enzymes on K-casein, and K-casein sensitive bonds are discussed. Macropeptides of other species are also presented. The carbohydrate moieties of bovine macropeptide together with their biological and physiological functions are reviewed. Macropeptides were produced by enzymic hydrolysis from whole casein solution using crystalline chymosin (EC 3.4.23.4). Trichloroacetic acid (final concentrations 2, 8 and 12%) was added after 5, 30 and 60 min of incubation to precipitate protein and inactivate the enzyme. The filtrate was then exhaustively dialyzed against distilled water to remove trichloroacetic acid and small molecules. The dialyzate was lyophilized and stored at -20deg;c until required for analysis. These macropeptides were then compared using RP-HPLC with macropeptides obtained from purified K-casein isolates by the same method (15 min incubation). Proteolytic activity of some milk-clotting enzymes (chymosin, Mucor miehei rennet and Endothia parasitica rennet) and some proteinases (trypsin and chymotrypsin) on K-casein and macropeptide isolated from K-casein was followed by RP-HPLC. The milk-clotting enzymes were standardized to the same clotting activity using a Formagraph. Each enzyme was incubated with .5 mix-casein and macropeptide solutions (10 mg in 1 ml .05 MpH 6.6 phosphate buffer) at 37°C for various incubation times. Reactions were stopped by addition .5 ml of 8 Murea containing 10-5 Mpepstatin or .025 ml pepstatin (1 mg pepstatin in 1 ml methanol). These reaction mixtures were separated into fractions using RP-HPLC and chromatograms of the different enzymes compared.

Orala bakterier, såsom de tidiga kolonisatörerna; Streptococcus gordonii, Streptococcus oralis, Streptococcus mitis och Actinomyces naeslundii uttrycker ett brett spektrum av ytadhesiner som möjliggör inbindning till receptorer i tandpellikeln. Saliv, gingivalt exudat (GCF) och kollagen I i cement på blottade rotytor erbjuder möjliga ytor i munhålan där bakterier kan adherera och bilda biofilm. Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka huruvida utvalda bakterier kan förändra genuttryck beroende på innehållet i olika ytor. Laborativa in vitro-försök genomfördes där de fyra bakteriearterna tilläts växa på ytor täckta med de tre olika substrat; saliv, serum och kollagen I. Graden av inducerad proteolytisk aktivitet, yt-associerad såväl som utsöndrad, uppskattades därefter med hjälp av ett FITC-konjugerat substrat, radiell diffusionsteknik samt spektrofotometri. Enligt studiens hypotes skulle bakteriearterna anpassa sig beroende på ytan de fäste till, och därigenom ändra metabol aktivitet såsom proteasuttryck. Baserat på resultaten kunde små förändringar noteras. Dock kunde inga bestämda slutsatser dras vad gäller förändrad proteolytisk förmåga hos de utvalda bakterierna exponerade för de olika orala ytorna i studien. / Oral bacteria, such as the early colonizers; Streptococcus gordonii, Streptococcus oralis, Streptococcus mitis and Actinomyces naeslundii display a wide range of surface adhesins which enable them to bind to receptors in the tooth pellicle. Saliva, gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) and collagen I in cementum on uncovered root surfaces present possible binding sites in the oral cavity onto which microorganisms can adhere and form a biofilm. The aim of this study was to assess whether these selected bacteria can alter their gene expression in response to protein components found on the various surfaces. In vitro laboratory assays were conducted, where the four oral species were added to surfaces coated with three substrates; human saliva, human serum and collagen I. The degree of induced proteolytic activity, surface-associated as well as secreted, was subsequently assessed using a FITC-labelled protease substrate, radial diffusion assays on skim milk agar and spectrophotometry. The hypothesis underlying the study was that bacterial species adapt depending on the surfaces they adhere to, thus altering protease expression. Based on the results, small variations could be detected, although no firm conclusion can be drawn regarding proteolytic abilities of the selected bacteria when exposed to the surfaces tested here.

African horsesickness (AHS) is one of the most deadly diseases of horses, with a mortality rate of over 90% in horses that have not been exposed to any African horsesickness virus (AHSV) serotype previously (Howell, 1960; Darpel et al., 2011). The Orbiviruses, African horsesickness virus (AHSV) and Bluetongue virus (BTV), are primarily transmitted to their mammalian hosts through certain haematophagous midge vectors (Culicoides spp.) (Erasmus, 1973). The selective cleavage of BTV and AHSV VP2 by trypsin-like serine proteases (Marchi et al., 1995) resulted in the generation of subsequent infectious sub-viral particles (ISVP) (Marchi et al., 1995; van Dijk & Huismans, 1982). It is believed that this cleavage affects the ability of the virus to infect cells of the mammalian and vector host (Darpel et al., 2011). Darpel et al (2011) identified a trypsinlike serine protease in the saliva of Culicoides sonorensis (C. sonorensis), which also cleaves the serotype determinant viral protein 2 (VP2) of BTV. And, a similar cleavage pattern was also observed by van Dijk & Huismans (1982) and Marchi et al (1995) with the use of trypsin and chymotrypsin. Manole et al (2012) recently determined the structure of a naturally occurring African horsesickness virus serotype 7 (AHSV7) strain with a truncated VP2. Upon further investigation, this strain was also shown to be more infective than the AHSV4 HS32/62 strain, since it outgrew AHSV4 in culture (Manole et al., 2012). Therefore, through proteolytic cleavage of these viral particles, the ability of the adult Culicoides to transmit the virus might be significantly increased (Dimmock, 1982; Darpel et al., 2011). Based on these findings, it is important to investigate the factors that influence the capability of arthropod-borne viruses to infect their insect vectors, mammalian hosts and their known reservoirs. In this study, we postulated that one of the vectors for AHSV, Culicoides imicola (C. imicola), has a protease similar to the 29 kDa C. sonorensis trypsin-like serine protease identified by Darpel et al (2011). Proteins in the total homogenate of C. imicola were separated on SDS-PAGE and yielded several protein bands, one of which also had a molecular mass of around 29 kDa. Furthermore, proteolytic activity was observed on a gelatin-based sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacryamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) gel. The activity of the protein of interest was also confirmed to be a trypsin-like serine protease with the use of class-specific protease inhibitors. A recombinant trypsin-like serine protease of C. sonorensis was generated using the pColdIII bacterial expression vector. The expressed protein was partially purified with nickel ion affinity chromatography. Zymography also confirmed proteolytic activity. With the use of the protease substrates containing fluorescent tags and class specific protease inhibitors, the expressed protein was classified as a serine protease. It was also proposed that incubation of purified AHSV4 with the recombinant protease would result in the cleavage of AHSV4 VP2, resulting in similar VP2 digestion patterns as observed in BTV by Darpel et al (2011) or the truncated VP2 of AHSV7 by Manole et al (2012). BHK-21 cell cultured AHSV4 was partially purified through Caesium chloride gradient ultracentrifugation after which the virus was incubated with the recombinant protease. Since not enough virus sample was obtained, the outcome of VP2 digestion was undetermined. In the last part of this study, it was postulated that C. imicola and C. sonorensis have the same trypsin-like serine protease responsible for the cleavage of VP2 based on the protease activity visualised in the whole midge homogenate. Since the genome of C. imicola is not yet sequenced, the sequence of this likely protease is still unknown. Therefore, we attempted to identify this C. imicola protease through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification. Total isolated ribonucleic acid (RNA) of C. imicola was used to synthesize complementary deoxyribonucleic acid (cDNA). The cDNA was subjected to PCR using C. sonorensis trypsin-like serine protease-based primers. An 830 bp DNA fragment was amplified. However, sequence alignment and the basic local alignment software tool (BLAST), revealed that DNA did not encode with any other known proteins or proteases. From the literature it seems that there is a correlation between the proteases in the vector and the mammalian species that succumb to AHS (Darpel et al., 2011, Wilson et al., 2009, Marchi et al., 1995). Based on the work performed in the study, a proteolytically active protein similar to the 29 kDa protein of C. sonorensis is present in C. imicola. The 29 kDa protease of C. sonorensis can also be expressed in bacteria which could aid in future investigations on how proteolytic viral modifications affect infectivity between different host species. / MSc (Biochemistry), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

A Bothrops atrox é uma serpente de amplia distribuição na Sul América e é responsável por um número importante de mortes de pessoas, principalmente na Amazônia. As alterações na composição do veneno desta espécie têm sido associados a fatores como a ontogenia, distribuição geográfica e alimentação. Assim, este projeto visa comparar e identificar a partir da diferença entre os sexos, as características bioquímicas e biológicas do veneno de irmãos de B. atrox, sob condições ambientais controladas, contribuindo no conhecimento das mudanças nas características do veneno da espécie e pudendo auxiliar no aprimoramento da produção de antissoros mais efetivos. Os venenos foram coletados de 5 fêmeas e 4 machos irmãos de B. atrox, nascidas em cativeiro. Os venenos foram analisados quanto individualmente como o pool de cada grupo. As análises consistiram em dosagem de proteína através de BCA, eletroforese mono e bidimensional, cromatografia liquida, espectrometria de massas, atividades caseinolítica, fosfolipásica A2, L-aminoácido oxidase, zimografias contendo gelatina e caseína como substrato, dose mínima coagulante sobre o plasma e fibrinogênio, dose leta 50% e dose mínima hemorrágica. A análise individual dos venenos mostrou que os machos apresentaram maior concentração de proteínas e atividade fosfolipásica A2. No quanto aos pools de veneno, o das fêmeas apresentou maior letalidade e capacidade coagulante sobre plasma e fibrinogênio e o dos machos apresentaram maior capacidade hemorrágica e atividade L-aminoácido oxidase. O perfil espectrométrico mostrou que o pool de veneno das fêmeas, teve um 29% a mais na quantidade de proteínas identificadas em relação aos machos. Em conclusão, a ação do veneno das fêmeas estaria relacionado a uma maior capacidade para gerar dano sistêmico na presa, entanto que os venenos dos machos poderiam ocasionar um maior dano local. Além, a variabilidade nas atividades biológicas dos venenos confirma que além dos fatores ambientais existem outros que poderiam influir na plasticidade da composição dos venenos. / Bothrops atrox snake is widespread in South America and causing a large number of human deaths, mainly in the Amazon. Changes in the composition of the venom of this species have been linked to factors such as ontogeny, geographical distribution and feeding. Thus, this study aims to compare and identify from the sex difference, the biochemical and biological characteristics of venom of B. atrox siblings, under controlled environmental conditions, contributing to the knowledge of changes in the characteristics of the venom of the species and can assist in improving the production of more effective antisera. Venoms were collected from 5 females and 4 males of B. atrox siblings, born in captivity. The venoms were analyzed both, individually and as a pool of each group. The assays consisted in protein quantification using BCA, one and two-dimensional electrophorese, liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, caseinolytic, phospholipase A2, and L-amino acid oxidase activities, zimography containing gelatin and casein as substrate, minimum coagulant dose upon plasma and fibrinogen, lethal dose 50 % and minimum hemorrhagic dose. Individual analysis of venoms showed that males had higher proteins concentration and phospholipase A2 activity. Concerning the venoms pool, the female showed higher lethality and coagulant capacity upon plasma and fibrinogen and the male had higher L-amino acid oxidase activity and hemorrhagic capacity. Spectrometric profile showed that the venom pool of female snakes had a 29 % increase in the number of proteins identified in comparison to males. In conclusion, the action of the female venom would be related to a higher capacity to generate systemic damage in the prey and male venoms could lead to higher local damage. In addition, variability in the biological activities of venoms confirms that there are other factors that could would be influencing the plasticity of the composition of venoms, in addition to environmental.

Neste trabalho descrevemos o isolamento, a caracterização funcional e estrutural de uma metaloprotease hemorrágica, denominada BjussuMP-I. A proteína foi isolada da peçonha de Bothrops jararacussu por combinação de dois passos cromatográficos, utilizando filtração molecular em Sephacryl S-200, equilibrada em tampão Tris-HCl (0,01 M, pH 7,0) seguida de cromatografia de interação hidrofóbica em Phenyl-Sepharose CL-4B, equilibrada em tampão Tris-HCl (0,01 M, pH 7,6 mais NaCl 4 M) e eluída com gradiente de NaCl (4-0 M) a 25°C no mesmo tampão. BjussuMP-I é uma proteína com massa molecular de 60 kDa e pI 5,6, a qual induziu hemorragia após injeção intradérmica em camundongos, com uma dose hemorrágica mínima (DHM) de 4,5 g. A atividade hemorrágica da BjussuMP-I foi totalmente inibida após incubação com um agente quelante (EDTA), confirmando a dependência de metal da enzima para esse efeito. BjussuMP-I possui atividade proteolítica sobre a caseína e fibrinogênio e nenhum efeito sobre a gelatina. Por outro lado, demonstrou alta especificidade pela cadeia do fibrinogênio enquanto que a cadeia somente foi hidrolisada na presença de altas concentrações da metaloprotease. A protease foi ativa sobre o fibrinogênio em pH neutro e alcalino e inativada a 75 °C. A dependência de metal da enzima foi demonstrada pela inibição exercida por EDTA, EGTA e 1,10 fenantrolina. Verificou-se uma inibição parcial pelo ?-mercaptoetanol e PMSF, enquanto que leupeptina e aprotinina não afetaram a atividade fibrinogenolítica. A enzima foi ativada na presença de íons Ca++ e Mg++, sendo inibida por Mn++, Fe++, Zn++, Co++ e Ni++. Além disso, baixas concentrações da enzima produziram lise no coágulo de fibrina. BjussuMP-I também demonstrou inibição da agregação plaquetária induzida por colágeno e ADP e atividade bactericida sobre Escherichia coli e Staphylococcus aureus. Verificou-se que as atividades hemorrágica e proteolítica da BjussuMP-I foram neutralizadas pelo diterpenóide clerodane (Bt-CD) de Bacharis trimera. Também se observou uma inibição total do efeito hemorrágico, utilizando o extrato aquoso de Pentaclethra macroloba (EPema). A enzima foi reconhecida por anticorpos antineuwiedase, com uma reação de identidade imunológica parcial. A seqüência completa do cDNA da BjussuMP-I com 1540 pb codificou para uma proteína de 547 resíduos de aminoácidos, que conservou os domínios comuns a metaloproteases hemorrágicas de alto peso molecular da classe PIII: (i) pré-pró-peptideo, (ii) metaloprotease, (iii) disintegrina-símile e (iv) domínio rico em cisteína. / In this study the isolation, functional and structural characterization of a hemorrhagic metalloprotease, named BjussuMP-I is reported. The protein was isolated from Bothrops jararacussu snake venom by a combination of two chromatographic steps, using gel filtration on Sephacryl S-200 (0.01 M Tris-HCl, pH7.6 buffer) and Phenyl-Sepharose CL-4B chromatography (0.01 M Tris-HCl plus 4 M NaCl, pH7.6 buffer) followed by a concentration gradient from 4 to 0 M NaCl at 25°C in the same buffer. BjussuMP-I is a 60 kDa protein with a pI 5.6, which induced hemorrhage after intradermal injection in mice with a minimum hemorrhagic dose (MHD) of 4.5 g. The hemorrhagic activity of BjussuMP-I was totally abolished after incubation with a chelating agent (EDTA), corroborating the metal-dependence of this effect. BjussuMP-I shows proteolytic activity on casein, collagen and fibrinogen, although no effect on gelatin was observed. In addition, it presented a high specificity toward the -chain of fibrinogen, while the -chain was only hydrolyzed at high concentrations of the metalloprotease. The protease was active against fibrinogen in neutral and alkaline pH and was inactivated at 75°C. The metal dependence of the enzyme was confirmed through inhibition by EDTA, EGTA and 1,10 phenantroline. A partial inhibition was observed with -mercaptoetanol and PMSF, while leupeptin and aprotinin did not inhibit the fibrinogenolytic activity. The enzyme was active in the presence of Ca++ and Mg++ and it was inhibited by Mn++, Fe++, Zn++, Co++ and Ni++. In addition, low concentrations of the enzyme presented lyses in fibrin plate after 12 h of incubation. BjussuMP-I also displayed inhibitory effect on collagen- and ADP-stimulated platelet aggregation, as well as bactericidal activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. It was reported that both hemorrhagic and proteolytic activities of BjussuMP-I were neutralized by the clerodane diterpenoide (Bt-CD) from Bacharis trimera. Full inhibition of hemorrhage was also observed by using aqueous extract from Pentaclethra macroloba (EPema). The enzyme was recognized by anti-neuwiedase antibodies in a reaction of partial immunologic identity. The complete cDNA sequence of BjussuMP-I with 1540 pb encoded open reading frames of 547 amino acid residues which conserved the common domains of P-III high molecular weight hemorrhagic metalloproteases: (i) pre-pro-peptide, (ii) metalloprotease, (iii) disintegrin-like and (iv) rich cysteine domain.

African horsesickness (AHS) is one of the most deadly diseases of horses, with a mortality rate of over 90% in horses that have not been exposed to any African horsesickness virus (AHSV) serotype previously (Howell, 1960; Darpel et al., 2011). The Orbiviruses, African horsesickness virus (AHSV) and Bluetongue virus (BTV), are primarily transmitted to their mammalian hosts through certain haematophagous midge vectors (Culicoides spp.) (Erasmus, 1973). The selective cleavage of BTV and AHSV VP2 by trypsin-like serine proteases (Marchi et al., 1995) resulted in the generation of subsequent infectious sub-viral particles (ISVP) (Marchi et al., 1995; van Dijk & Huismans, 1982). It is believed that this cleavage affects the ability of the virus to infect cells of the mammalian and vector host (Darpel et al., 2011). Darpel et al (2011) identified a trypsinlike serine protease in the saliva of Culicoides sonorensis (C. sonorensis), which also cleaves the serotype determinant viral protein 2 (VP2) of BTV. And, a similar cleavage pattern was also observed by van Dijk & Huismans (1982) and Marchi et al (1995) with the use of trypsin and chymotrypsin. Manole et al (2012) recently determined the structure of a naturally occurring African horsesickness virus serotype 7 (AHSV7) strain with a truncated VP2. Upon further investigation, this strain was also shown to be more infective than the AHSV4 HS32/62 strain, since it outgrew AHSV4 in culture (Manole et al., 2012). Therefore, through proteolytic cleavage of these viral particles, the ability of the adult Culicoides to transmit the virus might be significantly increased (Dimmock, 1982; Darpel et al., 2011). Based on these findings, it is important to investigate the factors that influence the capability of arthropod-borne viruses to infect their insect vectors, mammalian hosts and their known reservoirs. In this study, we postulated that one of the vectors for AHSV, Culicoides imicola (C. imicola), has a protease similar to the 29 kDa C. sonorensis trypsin-like serine protease identified by Darpel et al (2011). Proteins in the total homogenate of C. imicola were separated on SDS-PAGE and yielded several protein bands, one of which also had a molecular mass of around 29 kDa. Furthermore, proteolytic activity was observed on a gelatin-based sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacryamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) gel. The activity of the protein of interest was also confirmed to be a trypsin-like serine protease with the use of class-specific protease inhibitors. A recombinant trypsin-like serine protease of C. sonorensis was generated using the pColdIII bacterial expression vector. The expressed protein was partially purified with nickel ion affinity chromatography. Zymography also confirmed proteolytic activity. With the use of the protease substrates containing fluorescent tags and class specific protease inhibitors, the expressed protein was classified as a serine protease. It was also proposed that incubation of purified AHSV4 with the recombinant protease would result in the cleavage of AHSV4 VP2, resulting in similar VP2 digestion patterns as observed in BTV by Darpel et al (2011) or the truncated VP2 of AHSV7 by Manole et al (2012). BHK-21 cell cultured AHSV4 was partially purified through Caesium chloride gradient ultracentrifugation after which the virus was incubated with the recombinant protease. Since not enough virus sample was obtained, the outcome of VP2 digestion was undetermined. In the last part of this study, it was postulated that C. imicola and C. sonorensis have the same trypsin-like serine protease responsible for the cleavage of VP2 based on the protease activity visualised in the whole midge homogenate. Since the genome of C. imicola is not yet sequenced, the sequence of this likely protease is still unknown. Therefore, we attempted to identify this C. imicola protease through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification. Total isolated ribonucleic acid (RNA) of C. imicola was used to synthesize complementary deoxyribonucleic acid (cDNA). The cDNA was subjected to PCR using C. sonorensis trypsin-like serine protease-based primers. An 830 bp DNA fragment was amplified. However, sequence alignment and the basic local alignment software tool (BLAST), revealed that DNA did not encode with any other known proteins or proteases. From the literature it seems that there is a correlation between the proteases in the vector and the mammalian species that succumb to AHS (Darpel et al., 2011, Wilson et al., 2009, Marchi et al., 1995). Based on the work performed in the study, a proteolytically active protein similar to the 29 kDa protein of C. sonorensis is present in C. imicola. The 29 kDa protease of C. sonorensis can also be expressed in bacteria which could aid in future investigations on how proteolytic viral modifications affect infectivity between different host species. / MSc (Biochemistry), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Bactérias psicrotróficas foram isoladas de leite cru refrigerado oriundo de duas indústrias de beneficiamento localizadas no sul do Brasil. Contagens de bactérias psicrotróficas foram entre 4,9 e 7,8 logUFC/mL e de 5,3 a 7,2 logUFC/mL, em amostras coletadas no caminhão-tanque e no silo de armazenamento da indústria, respectivamente. Dentre as bactérias isoladas, 90% foram Gram-negativas. A maioria das cepas apresentaram baixa atividade proteolítica, mas cepas de Burkholderia cepacia, Klebsiella oxytoca e Aeromonas sp. apresentaram valores superiores a 20 U/mL em azocaseina como substrato. Proteases das cepas selecionadas foram resistentes aos tratamentos térmicos convencionais e causaram coagulação de leite UAT depois de cinco dias de estocagem em temperatura ambiente. A atividade proteolítica de uma variedade psicrotrófica de Burkholderia cepacia isolada de leite cru refrigerado foi caracterizada. A atividade proteolítica na azocaseina apresentou atividade máxima com pH 6-7 e decréscimo com pHs ácido e alcalino. A enzima apresentou relativa estabilidade térmica entre 40-55°C durante 25 min, mantendo pelo menos 80% de sua atividade inicial a 40°C. O ensaio de coagulação do leite demostrou que a protease da B. cepacia causou coagulação do leite desnatado a partir do segundo dia, enquanto a coagulação do leite integral foi observada a partir do quinto dia. A aderência desta cepa ao aço inoxidável foi avaliada e os substratos apresentaram níveis de cerca de 107 UFC/cm², independente dos diferentes tempos de imersão. A cepa denominada de 1A4 apresentou expressiva atividade proteolítica em pH 6-7 e 40ºC, atividade de coagulação do leite e capacidade de aderir ao aço inoxidável. Estes resultados indicam que B. cepacia representa um potencial perigo a qualidade do leite e produtos lácteos. / Psychrotrophic bacteria were isolated from refrigerated raw milk of two processing plants at Southern Brazil. Psychrotrophic counts were between 4.9 and 7.8 log CFU/mL, and 5.3 to 7.2 log CFU/mL, for samples collected at the truck and the milk storage silo, respectively. Among the bacterial isolates, 90% were Gram-negative. Most strains presented low proteolytic activity, but strains of Burkholderia cepacia, Klebsiella oxytoca and Aeromonas sp. showed higher than 20 U/mL on azocasein as substrate. Crude proteases from selected strains were resistant to conventional heat treatments and caused coagulation of UHT milk after 5 days storage at room temperature. The proteolytic activity of a psychrotrophic strain of Burkholderia cepacia isolated from refrigerated raw milk was characterized. The proteolytic activity on azocasein showed maximum activity at pH 6-7 and decrease at acid and alkaline pHs. The enzyme showed relative thermal stability in the range 40-55°C during 25 min, maintaining at least 80% its initial activity at 40°C. Milk coagulation assay showed that the crude protease from B. cepacia caused coagulation from day 2 for skimmed milk, whereas coagulation was observed from day 5 for whole milk. The adherence of this strain to stainless steel was evaluated, and the substrata had around 107CFU/cm², regardless the different immersion time evaluated. The strain 1A4 showed elevated proteolytic activity at pH 6-7 and 40ºC, high milk coagulating-activity, and elevated capability to adhere to stainless steel. These results indicate that B. cepacia may represent a potential hazadous to milk and dairy products.