Motivation är en central del för organisationer vad gäller att skapa och bibehålla en engagerad personal att sträva mot de mål som sätts upp. Belöningar kan användas för att öka motivationen hos medarbetare. Till följd av Covid-19 pandemin har många organisationer behövt anpassa sina arbetssätt där distansarbete bedrivs i större omfattning vilket kan ha en påverkan på de anställdas motivation. Det finns även tankar kring att belöningar inte används i samma utsträckning i offentligt finansierade organisationer och därmed är det intressant att undersöka då det verkar kunna ha en effekt på motivationen. Syftet med den här studien var att undersöka hur motivationen i en offentlig organisation har påverkats under rådande pandemi till följd av fenomenen digitalisering och distansarbete. Vi ville även se på sambandet mellan motivation och belöning i en offentlig organisation. För att kunna genomföra studien valde vi att tillämpa en kvalitativ fallstudie. Vi genomförde semistrukturerade intervjuer för att samla in relevant material till vårt forskningsområde. Valet av respondenter baserades på att individerna hade påverkats av pandemin med distansarbete som följd. Utifrån studiens resultat framkommer det att de viktigaste motivationsfaktorerna är samhörighet, utvecklingsmöjligheter och erkännande från omgivningen. Vi kan se att distansarbetet har påverkat organisationen både positivt och negativt. Vissa av medarbetarna upplever att deras motivation har minskat och andra upplever inga skillnad eller en ökning. De negativa effekterna som upplevs till följd av distansarbetet består främst av sämre kommunikation, samhörighet och struktur. Det framkommer att belöningar är viktigt men det finns ingen förväntan i organisationen att få ta del av ekonomisk ersättning, det är dock inget som verkar ha en negativ effekt. De slutsatser som framkommit från vår studie är att motivationen påverkas på ett eller annat sätt till följd av digitalisering och distansarbete där individernas tidigare erfarenheter och preferenser gällande arbetssätt spelar in. Vidare kan vi även dra en slutsats kring att belöning har en påverkan på offentligt anställdas motivation, främst i form av feedback och erkännande. / Motivation is a central part of organizations in terms of creating and maintaining a committed staff to strive for the goals that are set. Rewards can be used to increase employee motivation. As a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, many organizations have had to adapt their working methods where remote work is conducted to a greater extent, which could have an impact on employee motivation. There are also thoughts that rewards are not used to the same extent in publicly funded organizations and thus it is interesting to investigateas it seems to influence motivation. The purpose of this study was to investigate how the motivation in a public organization has been affected during the prevailing pandemic as a result of the phenomenon of digitalization and remote work. We also wanted to look atthe connection between motivation and reward in a public organization. In order to be able to carry out the study, we chose to apply a qualitative case study. We conducted semi-structured interviews to gather relevant material for our research area. The choice of respondents was based on the fact that the individuals had been affected by the pandemic with remote work as a result. Based on the results of the study, it appears that the most important motivation factors are belonging, opportunities for development and recognition from the surroundings. We can see that the distance work has affected theorganization both positively and negatively. Some of the employees feel that their motivation has decreased, and others experience no difference or an increase. The negative effects experienced as a result of remote work mainly consist of poorer communication, belonging and structure. It turns out that rewards are important, but there is no expectation in the organization to receive financial compensation other than salary, but it doesn’t seem to have a negative effect. The conclusions that emerged from our study are that motivationis affected in one way or another as a result of digitalization and remote work where the individuals' previous experiences and preferences regarding working methods come into play. Furthermore, we can also draw a conclusion that reward has an impact on public employees' motivation, primarily in the form of feedback and recognition.

One major challenge in developmental neuroscience research is the sheer number of choices researchers face when addressing even a single research question. Even once data collection is complete, the journey from raw data to interpretation of findings may depend on numerous decisions. To address this issue, this dissertation explores “multiverse” analysis techniques for following many analytical paths at once in the same dataset. In chapter 1, multiverses are used to examine which analyses of age-related change in amygdala-medial prefrontal cortex circuitry are robust versus sensitive to researcher decisions. Chapter 2 uses multiverse analysis to identify optimal solutions for mitigating breathing-induced artifacts in resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data. Chapter 3 uses a variety of model specifications to characterize simultaneous reward learning strategies in youth contingent on both visual task cues and spatial-motor information. Despite varied approaches and goals, each of the three studies highlight the benefits of conducting multiple parallel analyses for both addressing questions in developmental neuroscience and deepening understanding of the methods used to address them.

This study addresses the experience of using token economy among parents who have children with the diagnoses autism spectrum disorder and Asperger’s syndrome. The study also examines the factors that may have contributed to the outcome of the results, as age, knowledge and gender. The children counts from the ages 0-18 years old at the time for the use of token economy. The study gathered information through questionnaires who was distributed in Facebook groups for the targeted group. 54 respondents answered the questionnaire in a useful way. The result showed that the most part of the respondents experienced token economy as a poor behavior modification method on these children. One factor that could be of significance for the children with autism, if token economy works, is if they are older than 12 years. More and deeper surveys is needed to generalize the result and the conclusion. Token economy is a controversial and a debated subject within the circle of people who knows the method. Therefore, it is important with continued scientific research and development of the method’s applications. / Studien behandlar upplevelsen av användandet av teckenekonomi bland föräldrar som har barn med diagnoserna autismspektrumtillstånd eller Aspergers syndrom. Studien undersöker även faktorer som kan ha spelat in för resultatet, såsom ålder, kunskap och kön. Barn räknas från ålder 0-18 år vid användandet av teckenekonomi. Studien hämtade information genom enkäter som distribuerades ut i Facebookgrupper för målgruppen i fråga. 54 respondenter besvarade enkäten på ett användbart sätt. Resultatet visade på att flertalet respondenter upplevde teckenekonomi som en dålig beteendemodifikation på dessa barn. En faktor som skulle kunna ha betydelse för om teckenekonomi fungerar på barn med autism, är om de är över 12år. Fler och djupare undersökningar krävs för att kunna generalisera resultatet och slutsatsen. Teckenekonomi är ett kontroversiellt och debatterat ämne inom den krets som känner till metoden. Därför är det viktigt med fortsatt forskning och utveckling av metodens tillämpningar.

The purpose of this study was to increase the level of completed academic tasks through the use of a token economy system with female adolescents in an institutional classroom setting. A 70 percent anticipated completion of academic tasks was the primary aim. Secondly, would there he an 80 percent increase of appropriate behaviors following intervention? Six emotionally disturbed girls living in an adolescent treatment center; subjects of this study, were unable to adjust to the socially acceptable norms of behavior. Each of these girls was described as too disturbed to learn. Utilizing the principles of behavioral change, the experimental classroom was set up to assist each girl in increasing her on academic task behavior and/or to enable her to work and learn independently in the classroom. The environment was arranged in such a way that when a girl interacted with it, learning was maximized. Results found the average classroom percent of weeks meeting or exceeding 70 percent was 31 percent. The days meeting 70 percent criteria was 51 percent. The class average of on academic task rose from 10 percent to 88 percent.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(医学) / 甲第20666号 / 医博第4276号 / 新制||医||1024(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院医学研究科医学専攻 / (主査)教授 伊佐 正, 教授 富樫 かおり, 教授 髙橋 良輔 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Medical Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF VERNON SWEETIN, for the Doctor of Philosophy degree, DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING, COLLEGE OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, presented on June 23, 2010, at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. TITLE: WILLINGNESS TO REWARD OR PUNISH BRANDS AS MODERATORS FOR THE BRAND PERSONALITY DIMENSION OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY MAJOR PROFESSOR: Dr. John H. Summey Social responsibility has received empirical support for its addition to the Brand Personality construct. The objectives of this study were first, to compare and contrast attitudinal reactions to varying descriptions of Social Responsibility as a Brand Personality dimension and second, to examine the data for possible moderation effects with the consumers' Willingness to Reward construct and the Willingness to Punish construct, with the latter as a proposed new construct for how consumers' respond to the Brand Dimension, Social Responsibility. The study tested 4 forms of social responsibility in a between-subjects factorial design. The study found that the subjects in the socially responsible condition had a difference in the Willingness to Reward construct when compared to the subjects in the socially irresponsible condition and the control condition. The study's support for the existence of the new moderator Willingness to Punish was found coupled with confirmatory support for Willingness to Reward as a moderator.

Belöningssystem är ett omtalat verktyg inom organisationer och används i syfte attmotivera organisationers anställda. Självbestämmandeteorin (SDT) förklarar viktigaaspekter för att främja arbetsmotivation inom organisationer, som omfattar upplevelsenav autonomi, tillhörighet och kompetens. Bland forskare råder det delade meningargällande vilka former av belöningar som främjar arbetsmotivation. Uppsatsens syfte attundersöka hur arbetstagare upplever arbetsmotivation och belöningar, samt hur dessaförhåller sig till varandra. För att besvara uppsatsens syfte genomfördes en kvalitativstudie, vilket omfattade ett genomförande av intervjuer med anställda på en organisationi Sverige. Resultatet visade huruvida belöningar och arbetsmotivation upplevdes, samthur belöningar och arbetsmotivation samspelar med varandra. Det framkom att olikaindividuella aspekter som exempelvis personlighet, livssituation och övriga behov ochpreferenser påverkar vilken form av belöning som eftersträvas

Bipolar spectrum disorders (BSDs) and substance use disorders (SUDs) are highly co-occurring and both are associated with dysfunction in neural networks that mediate reward processing and motivated behavior. Furthermore, despite their high comorbidity rate, limited research into their shared neural mechanisms or potential prospective risk factors exists. This study attempted to elucidate common neural pathways for these disorders, and adds to the small but growing literature on possible prospective predictors of these disorders. We employed a task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study to examine regions-of-interest (ventral striatum [VS], orbitofrontal cortex [OFC], ventromedial prefrontal cortex [vmPFC], dorsolateral prefrontal cortex [dlPFC]) and connectivity (VS-OFC, VS-vmPFC, vmPFC-dlPFC) analyses to examine neural reward processing as potential predictors of future substance and mood symptoms, and to explore differences among groups of participants with and without BSDs and SUDs. Results from this study provided evidence that blunted activation in the VS and dlPFC and greater negative connectivity between the vmPFC and dlPFC, key reward and control circuits, is implicated in prospective substance use. However, we did not find evidence to support our hypothesis that reward-related neural responses predict BSD symptoms or could differentiate individuals with co-occurring BSDs and SUDs from healthy volunteers. The study highlights the importance of larger, longitudinal studies to more fully probe neurodevelopmental trajectories in mood, substance, and related disorders. We also conducted an extensive review of the neural reward literature in BSDs and SUDs to understand possible pre-existent mechanisms. Results of the review provided support for an equifinality/multifinality perspective in that similar neural reward processing dysfunctions can lead to both BSDs and SUDs and different neural reward processing abnormalities can lead to a single outcome (e.g., SUDs). Taken together, results from the dissertation address an important gap in the literature on BSD-SUD comorbidity, suggest possible shared mechanisms that predispose to both disorders, and provide a backdrop for future work in this area to inform more theoretically-targeted interventions and prevention. / Psychology

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), defined as the deliberate damaging or destruction of body tissue without intent to die, are common behaviors amongst youth. Although prior work has shown heightened response to negative outcomes and dampened response to positive outcomes across multiple methods, including behavioral and physiological measures, little is known about the neural processes involved in NSSI. This study examined associations between NSSI engagement and responsivity to rewards and losses in youth with and without a lifetime engagement in NSSI. We employed a task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study to examine differences between regions of interest (ROIs; ventral and dorsal striatum [VS, DS], anterior cingulate cortex [ACC], orbitofrontal cortex [OFC], ventrolateral and ventromedial prefrontal cortex [vlPFC; vmPFC], and insula) and whole-brain connectivity (utilizing bilateral DS, mPFC, and insula seed ROIs) in youth with and without NSSI. We used two reward tasks, in order to examine differences between groups across domains of reward (i.e., monetary and social). Additionally, we examined the specificity of the associations by controlling for dimensional levels of related psychopathology (i.e., aggression and depression). Results from the current study found that NSSI was associated with decreased activation following monetary gains in all ROIs. Further, these differences remained significant when controlling for comorbid psychopathology, including symptoms of aggression and depression. Finally, exploratory connectivity analyses found that NSSI was associated with differential connectivity between regions including the DS, vmPFC, insula, parietal operculum cortex, supramarginal gyrus, cerebellum, and central opercular cortex. Weakened connectivity between these regions could suggest deficits in inhibitory control of emotions in individuals with NSSI, as well as dysfunction in pain processing in individuals with NSSI, whereby these individuals experience pain as more salient or rewarding than individuals without NSSI. Although results did not support our hypotheses, findings suggest disrupted reward processes in youth with NSSI, contributing to our understanding of the role that reward processes may play in NSSI, in the engagement and reinforcement of these behaviors. We also conducted an extensive systematic review of the studies indexing neural structure and function in NSSI, summarizing the literature on the neurobiological correlates of several psychological processes implicated in NSSI engagement, including emotion processes, pain processes, executive processes, social processes, and reward processes. Results of the review highlighted the neural regions most consistently associated with NSSI, including the amygdala, insula, frontal, prefrontal, and orbitofrontal cortices, and the anterior cingulate, dorsal striatum, and ventral striatum. Additionally, data showed that NSSI is associated with greater emotional responses in negative situations, poorer down-regulation of negative emotions, and poorer inhibitory control over impulsive behaviors. Overall, findings suggest that NSSI is associated with maladaptive coping, and that this down-regulation of negative emotion resulting from NSSI may be experienced as rewarding and may serve to reinforce engagement in these behaviors. Finally, this review highlighted the importance of standardizing the methods of indexing neural structure and function in NSSI, specifically in terms of how NSSI is categorized, which comorbid disorders are examined, and how neuroimaging data are collected and analyzed, so that research in this area is comparable and reproducible. / Psychology

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