Introdução: Alterações no ambiente fetal conferem um risco aumentado para doenças crônicas como obesidade, doença cardiovascular, hipertensão arterial e diabetes tipo 2. As evidências sugerem que a restrição de crescimento intrauterino (RCIU) pode programar de forma persistente as preferências alimentares, e acredita-se que esse tipo de alteração comportamental, pode explicar, pelo menos em parte, o aumento do risco para essas doenças em indivíduos que sofreram RCIU. Portanto, torna-se importante entender os fatores associados e mecanismos envolvidos nesse comportamento. O objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar o efeito da RCIU no comportamento alimentar em animais e humanos, assim como os possíveis mecanismos envolvidos na sua programação. Métodos: Ratas Sprague Dawley prenhes foram randomizadas para o grupo controle (Adlib), que recebeu dieta padrão ad libitum ou grupo restrição 50% (FR), que recebeu 50% do consumo habitual de genitoras alimentadas ad libitum. As dietas foram oferecidas a partir do dia 10 de gestação até o dia 21 de lactação. Em até 24h após o nascimento, foi realizada a adoção cruzada formando os grupos: Adlib_Adlib, FR_Adlib, FR_FR, Adlib_FR. O consumo de ração padrão foi comparado entre todos os grupos. A preferência alimentar, a preferência condicionada por lugar induzida por alimento palatável, assim como a fosforilação da enzima tirosina hidroxilase e os níveis de receptores D2 no núcleo acumbens foram comparados entre os grupos de interesse (Adlib_Adlib e FR_Adlib). Nos humanos, 75 jovens, classificados quanto à RCIU, participaram de avaliação antropométrica, bioquímica e de comportamento alimentar (teste de escolha alimentar, no qual todos recebiam um valor monetário para compra de um lanche, e Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire, DEBQ). Dados de neuroimagem funcional em repouso entre regiões relacionadas à recompensa de 28 indivíduos foram processados e analisados, de um total de 43 exames realizados. Resultados: No estudo experimental, viu-se que o consumo de ração padrão não foi diferente entre os grupos. Ratos restritos apresentaram preferência pela dieta palatável, mas menor condicionamento de preferência ao lugar associado ao alimento palatável. A fosforilação da tirosina hidroxilase no núcleo acumbens foi maior nestes animais no estado basal, mas após exposição ao doce essa diferença entre os grupos permaneceu apenas nos machos. A RCIU também se associou a menores níveis de receptores D2 no núcleo acumbens. No estudo clínico, encontrou-se que a menor razão de crescimento fetal (indicativo de maior RCIU) e alto índice de massa corporal predizem um estilo alimentar restritivo visto pelo DEBQ. Pessoas nascidas com RCIU também usaram menor quantidade do um recurso financeiro oferecido no teste de escolha alimentar após um período de jejum. Os dados de neuroimagem funcional sugerem que os indivíduos restritos apresentam um padrão de conectividade em repouso alterado entre o córtex orbito-frontal, o estriado ventral/dorsal e a amígdala. Conclusão: A RCIU esteve associada com preferência por alimentos palatáveis e alterações no sistema dopaminérgico no estudo experimental e alterações da conectividade em repouso entre áreas do sistema mesocorticolímbico no estudo clínico. As alterações observadas no sistema dopaminérgico dos animais restritos indicam que esse sistema estaria envolvido na programação da preferência alimentar nesses indivíduos. Além disso, o padrão de conectividade em repouso observado nos indivíduos restritos sugere que alterações em determinadas regiões do sistema de recompensa poderiam estar associadas com mudanças no comportamento alimentar. As alterações neurocomportamentais observadas confirmam a existência de programação fetal do comportamento alimentar pela RCIU, apontando modificações persistentes no sistema de recompensa do cérebro, o que pode ser visto como um fator de risco para o desenvolvimento de obesidade e suas comorbidades. / Introduction: Fetal environment changes can lead to adaptations that are associated with increased risk for obesity, cardiovascular disease, hypertension and diabetes in adult life. Evidence suggests that intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) can persistently program the subject’s preference for palatable foods. It is believed that feeding behavior alterations can explain, at least in part, the increased risk for chronic diseases in IUGR individuals. Therefore, it becomes important to understand the factors and mechanisms involved in this behavior. The aim of this study was to explore how IUGR affects feeding behavior of animals and humans, as well as to verify the potential mechanisms related to this behavioral programming. Methods: Time-mated pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly allocated to Control (receiving standard chow ad libitum) or 50% food restricted (FR), receiving 50% of the ad libitum-fed dam’s habitual intake. These diets were provided from day 10 of pregnancy throughout day 21 of lactation. Within 24 hours after birth, pups were crossfostered, forming four groups: Adlib_Adlib, FR_Adlib, FR_FR, Adlib_FR. Standard chow consumption was compared between all groups. Food preference, conditioned place preference to a palatable diet, and the nucleus accumbens tyrosine hydroxylase phosphorylation and D2 receptor levels were analyzed focusing on two groups of interest (Adlib_Adlib and FR_Adlib). In humans, 75 youths were classified regarding IUGR and had anthropometric data, biochemical data, and feeding behavior (food choice task, in which everyone received a monetary value to purchase a snack, and Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire) assessed. Forty three neuroimaging exams were performed and resting state functional connectivity between brain regions related to reward of 28 individuals were processed and analyzed. Results: In the experimental study, standard chow consumption was not different between groups. IUGR adult rats had increased preference for palatable food, but showed less conditioned place preference to a palatable diet compared to controls. At baseline, the accumbal tyrosine hydroxylase phosphorylation was increased in IUGR rats compared to controls. After sweet food exposure, the difference between groups remained only in males. Accumbal D2 receptors levels were decreased in IUGR rats. In the clinical study, it was found that low birth weight ratio (indicative of higher IUGR) and high body mass index predict a restrained eating style as seen by the DEBQ. IUGR individuals used a smaller quantity of a financial resource offered in the food choice task after a fasting period. Resting state functional connectivity data suggest that IUGR individuals had an altered pattern of connectivity between the orbitofrontal cortex, the ventral/dorsal striatum and the amygdala. Conclusion: IUGR was associated with a preference for palatable foods and alterations in the dopaminergic system in the experimental study, as well as changes in the resting state functional connectivity between regions of the mesocorticolimbic pathway in the clinical study. Alterations in the mesolimbic dopaminergic system observed in IUGR rats indicate an important role in the programming of food preferences. Moreover, the IUGR pattern of brain connectivity observed suggests that alterations in certain regions involved in reward processing and evaluation could be associated with changes in eating behavior. Neurobehavioral changes observed confirmed the existence of a fetal programming of feeding behavior associated with IUGR, pointing out to persistent modifications in the brain reward system, which can be seen as a risk factor for the development of obesity and its comorbidities.

Att arbeta i olika typer av arbetsgrupper är idag vanligt förekommande i organisationer, och många företag tillämpar någon form av incitamentsprogram med rörlig lön för att motivera arbetsgrupperna till högre prestationer. Den forskning som finns är framförallt genomförd i laboratoriemiljö och undersöker hur individer påverkas av olika faktorer såsom andel rörlig lön och storlek på arbetsgrupper. Dock finns en brist på forskning som undersöker hur dessa program påverkar till exempel motivation och samarbete i verkliga miljöer. Syftet med denna studie är att studera hur incitamentsprogram för grupper kan utformas. Med studien vill vi ge företag ökad kunskap om hur de kan utforma incitamentsprogram för att öka prestationen i sina arbetsgrupper. Studien har en kvalitativ ansats. Semistrukturerade intervjuer har genomförts med totalt 15 personer ur två säljorganisationer i ett tjänsteföretag med verksamhet spridd över hela Sverige. Genom intervjuerna har vi sökt få svar på hur olika aspekter av incitamentsprogram för grupper motiverar de individuella medarbetarna samt påverkar samarbetet. Respondenternas svar antyder att faktorer som gruppstorlek, andel rörlig lön och frekvens på utbetalningar alla påverkar hur medarbetare beskriver att de motiveras av incitamentsprogrammen. Därutöver har att ett tydligt syfte och klara spelregler framträtt som avgörande för hur incitamentsprogrammen tas emot av de anställda, vilket har föranlett oss att ge ett förslag på hur befintliga modeller kan kompletteras. / Today it is very common to work in different types of teams in organizations, and companies are applying incentive programs with variable salary to motivate their teams to increase performance. Existing research is primarily done in laboratory environments and only analyzes how individuals are affected by various factors, such as share of variable salary and team size. However, previous studies are missing to investigate how these programs affect for instance, motivation and collaboration in real environments. The aim of this study is therefore to study how incentive programs for groups in can be designed. With this study we want to give companies a deeper understanding for how they can design incentive programs to increase the performance in their teams. The study has a qualitative approach. Semi-structured interviews have been performed with a total of 15 persons from two sales organizations in a service company with its business spread over the whole of Sweden. Through the interviews we searched for answers to how different aspects of team-based incentive programs motivate the individual employees and how they affect collaboration. The respondent’s answers suggest that factors such as size of the team, share of variable salary and frequency of payments, all affect how employees describe how they are motivated by the incentive program. In addition, a clear purpose and a set of rules emerged as vital parts for how the incentive program will be received by the employees. This led us to propose how existing models may be complemented. The language of this thesis is Swedish.

Medical decision problems are extremely complex owing to their dynamic nature, large number of variable factors, and the associated uncertainty. Decision support technology entered the medical field long after other areas such as the airline industry and the manufacturing industry. Yet, it is rapidly becoming an indispensable tool in medical decision making problems including the class of sequential decision problems. In these problems, physicians decide on a treatment plan that optimizes a benefit measure such as the treatment cost, and the quality of life of the patient. The last decade saw the emergence of many decision support applications in medicine. However, the existing models have limited applications to decision problems with very few states and actions. An urgent need is being felt by the medical research community to expand the applications to more complex dynamic problems with large state and action spaces. This thesis proposes a methodology which models the class of sequential medical decision problems as a Markov decision process, and solves the model using a simulation based reinforcement learning (RL) algorithm. Such a methodology is capable of obtaining near optimal treatment strategies for problems with large state and action spaces. This methodology overcomes, to a large extent, the computational complexity of the value-iteration and policy-iteration algorithms of dynamic programming. An average reward reinforcement-learning algorithm is developed. The algorithm is applied on a sample problem of treating hereditary spherocytosis. The application demonstrates the ability of the proposed methodology to obtain effective treatment strategies for sequential medical decision problems.

This dissertation addresses a specific aspect of the broad area of communication systems used among researchers. This research has undertaken to establish a broader view of the communication practices of scholars to understand the motivations behind their publication choices. Open access offers a solution to issues with the scholarly publication system such as delays in publication and restricted visibility of research due to high subscription costs. The principle of open access is to enable maximum access to findings from publicly funded research to maximise social returns on public investments. Despite the apparent benefits of open access, the uptake has been limited. ¶ This thesis research takes a holistic view of the researcher as a communicator to uncover the reasons why researchers are making the publishing decisions they are. In-depth interviews were conducted with 43 researchers in three disciplines at two institutions, the Australian National University and the University of New South Wales. The disciplines, Chemistry, Sociology and Computer Science, were known to have different publication practices, The questions asked about all aspects of researcher communication including researching, authoring, informal communication, article submission, refereeing, mentoring and data storage. ¶ The findings show that traditional arguments for open access are ineffective. The Reward function of scholarly publishing is central to managing academic careers and supports traditional publishing systems. While having work openly accessible increases an academic’s exposure and possibly therefore their citation counts, unless alternative internet-based forms of metrics are adopted, the open access option will not directly appeal to researchers. ¶ Information-seeking behaviour demonstrates how disciplinary differences affect researcher’s interaction with technology. The disciplines showed marked differences in almost all the areas explored, and the behavioural norms expressed in each discipline have direct bearing on the likelihood of members of that discipline embracing open access. The ‘institutional/disciplinary divide’ means that researchers must publish in ways that run counter to their disciplinary norms in order to satisfy institutional and grant funding requirements. ¶ Until governments, and particularly university administrations, recognise the need to consider the discipline and the need to consider the individual and respond to these needs, and until there is a realisation that different disciplines may require radically different approaches, there will not be a large-scale adoption by individual researchers of the current open access tools. Either institutional repositories need to adapt dramatically to offer work practice benefits or the broader academic population will only use institutional repositories under duress, which is not the situation envisaged by open access advocates. The alternative is for communities to develop their own subject-based repositories, a development that again is likely to be highly dependent on communication norms in different disciplines.

This thesis investigates the use of reinforcement learning to learn to drive a racecar in the simulated environment of the Robot Automobile Racing Simulator. Real-life race driving is known to be difficult for humans, and expert human drivers use complex sequences of actions. There are a large number of variables, some of which change stochastically and all of which may affect the outcome. This makes driving a promising domain for testing and developing Machine Learning techniques that have the potential to be robust enough to work in the real world. Therefore the principles of the algorithms from this work may be applicable to a range of problems. The investigation starts by finding a suitable data structure to represent the information learnt. This is tested using supervised learning. Reinforcement learning is added and roughly tuned, and the supervised learning is then removed. A simple tabular representation is found satisfactory, and this avoids difficulties with more complex methods and allows the investigation to concentrate on the essentials of learning. Various reward sources are tested and a combination of three are found to produce the best performance. Exploration of the problem space is investigated. Results show exploration is essential but controlling how much is done is also important. It turns out the learning episodes need to be very long and because of this the task needs to be treated as continuous by using discounting to limit the size of the variables stored. Eligibility traces are used with success to make the learning more efficient. The tabular representation is made more compact by hashing and more accurate by using smaller buckets. This slows the learning but produces better driving. The improvement given by a rough form of generalisation indicates the replacement of the tabular method by a function approximator is warranted. These results show reinforcement learning can work within the Robot Automobile Racing Simulator, and lay the foundations for building a more efficient and competitive agent.

就一般心理學的研究而言，生理心理學（physiology psychology）主要是以動物為受試，著重在以個體為主的行為與神經機制的探討；而社會心理學（social psychology）則以人類為受試，偏重以團體互動為主的社會行為研究，兩者誠屬於不同研究取向的學門。本研究的主要動機是希望證實動物模式的確可以用來探討某些社會行為現象，並証實動物研究中應考量團體因素的影響效果。本研究以大白鼠為受試，分別採長期單獨飼養、配對飼養及四隻團體飼為養，用以操弄受試不同程度的團體互動經驗，以探討不同飼養方式對個體行為表現及對葯物效果的影響。此外，並藉由操作式制約行為探討社會助長的成響因，以及確立社會閒散現象的存在。研究結果證實不同的飼養方式的確會影響大白鼠的基本生理指標及固定比率操作式制約行為，致使行為表現呈現單獨飼養組大於配對飼養組，且配對飼養組大於團體飼養組的現象。另外，不同飼養方式與安非他命葯物間有顯著的交互作用效果。實驗中透過大白鼠操作式行為的探討，發現只有在團體飼養組才有社會助長現在的存在，驗證了社會助長現象的確與個體的成長背景有關。此外，研究中亦發現社會閒散現象的確存在於某些飼養方式及制約作業之中，證實動物模式中亦有社會閒散的現象。由上述結論建議可以使用動物模式進行某些社會行為的研究，除了探討其社會行為的成因外，亦可瞭解此社會行為是否具有其特定的生理機制；此外，從事有關神經化學、生理或葯理研究的學者，也應將社會因素或團體因素帶入動物行為研究的考量因素之中。

最近三十年來,最佳經濟設計管制圖已被考慮用來維持製程的穩定.由於在 實務上■管制圖被廣泛使用,是以大多數管制圖經濟模型的發展,都以單一 非機遇因素下的■管制圖為研究對象,但在實務上製程常會受二個或二個 以上非機遇因素的干擾.是以本研究利用更新理論方法建立二個非機遇因 素成本模式.又為使成本模式包含顧客的聲音以顯示品質的重要,本研究提 出以產品出廠後對社會的損失替代傳統上的成本考量.當推導出能反應顧 客滿意度的二個非機遇因素製程成本模式後,藉著最佳化技巧可決定■管 制圖的最佳設計參數值,並由例子的分析說明模式參數對最佳設計參數值 的影響 .另外,■經濟管制圖與Shewhart■管制圖間的成本比較顯現前者 能有顯著改善.最後,在考慮損失函數下■管制圖的建立與應用將被舉例說 明.

<p>The current financial crisis has left its mark. It has even hit the major Swedish banks who have shown large losses. The media has not been slow to take note of this, and the constant political debate about the bonus culture has been reinvigorated. Our aim is to find out how the major Swedish banks relate to the publicity and describe how and why senior executives are rewarded, and what strategies banks are using in the design of their reward system to maintain a legitimate behavior, and thus the confidence of its stakeholders.</p><p>As a starting point to answer our purpose we have used the agency theory that describes our view of how various problems occurs and how incentives can be established in order to get senior executives to act for their owners' interests. Modern theories of reward systems are taken from a variety of authors, these theories give us an insight into how reward systems can be designed in banks. The final piece is to get insight into what legitimacy might look like in our society. In this area there were a couple of different researchers who were influential in our study.</p><p>We have chosen a qualitative study. In our opinion, a study based on interviews and words is necessary so as to get as close to the truth as possible. In this way we can discover whether or not the banks take into consideration mass Media attention and incorporate a reward system into their strategies. We have interviewed individuals with expertise in the subject, at the bank's HR department. It's mostly where our empirical data is collected, but we have also supplemented this with secondary data.</p><p>In conclusion, we have, among others, found that major banks are taking account of the mass Media debate. They try to participate in the debate, communicate and be open with their reward systems. Clarity is crucial, especially for systems acceptance, among the bank's customers. Having the confidence of its customers is central to the banking business. Thus, banks' teaching ability is the biggest challenge, to maintain legitimacy in the reward system in relation to their stakeholders.</p> / <p>Rådande finanskris har lämnat spår efter sig. Det har inte minst drabbat de svenska storbankerna som visat stora förluster. Media har inte varit sena att uppmärksamma detta och den ständiga politiska debatten angående bonuskulturen har fått ny kraft. Vårt syfte är att ta reda på hur svenska storbanker förhåller sig till denna publicitet och beskriva hur och varför ledande befattningshavare belönas, samt vilka strategier bankerna använder i utformandet av sina belöningssystem för att upprätthålla ett legitimt beteende, och på så vis förtroende hos sina intressenter.</p><p>Som utgångspunkt för att kunna besvara vårt syfte har vi använt oss av agentteorin vilken beskriver hur olika problem uppstår och hur incitament kan upprättas för att få ledande befattningshavare att agera för ägarnas intressen. Moderna teorier om belöningssystem har hämtats från en rad olika författare, dessa teorier har vi i syfte för att få inblick i hur dagens belöningssystem kan vara utformade i bankerna. Den sista pusselbiten är att få insikt i vad legitimitet är och hur den kan se ut i vårt samhälle. För detta område är det är det ett par olika forskare som varit tongivande i vår studie.</p><p>Vi har valt en kvalitativ studie. Enligt oss krävs en studie baserad på ord och intervjuer för att komma nära sanningen och få svar på om banken tar hänsyn till massmedial uppmärksamhet vid utformandet av strategier för belöningssystem. Vi har intervjuat individer med spetskompetens inom området på respektive banks HR-avdelning. Det är mestadels där vår empiri samlats in, men vi har även kompletterat med sekundärdata.</p><p>I slutsatsen har vi bland annat kommit fram till att storbankerna tar hänsyn till den massmediala debatten. De försöker delta i debatten kommunicera och vara öppna med sina belöningssystem. Tydligheten är avgörande, inte minst för systemens acceptans hos bankens kunder. Att ha förtroende hos sina kunder är centralt i bankaffären. Således är bankernas pedagogiska förmåga den största utmaningen, för att upprätthålla legitimitet i belöningssystemen gentemot deras intressenter.</p>

<p>Background:</p><p>Companies are beginning to see the world as their market; not only to seek global opportunities but also to oversee the global competition. Although most people connect globalization to export and import of goods, the globalization process also affect the businesses distinguished by service. The corporations are faced with higher demands of adaptation, which in turn leads to higher needs of skills and knowledge, which of course is very important in business such as the hotel industry. A motivated employee can perform better and furthermore has a stronger sense of belonging to the organization and might therefore be a key to future success of the company.</p><p>Purpose:</p><p>The main purpose of this essay is to compare the motivation strategies and reward systems chosen by the management and match this with what the employees are requesting. By doing this we can compare the different objects studied in this essay and furthermore we will be able to see which hotel that has the best match. A purpose is also to see which of the motivation strategies that generally are seen as the most motivating among the hotel employees in these case studies.</p><p>Methodology:</p><p>In order to attain our purpose of this essay we found it most suitable to utilize a multiple case study with a touch of both quantitative and qualitative research methods. To obtain a deeper understanding, personal interviews with hotel managers are being matched with the answers from the questionnaire that hotel employees in the studied hotels provided us with. The different perspectives will be clearer through a gap analysis, carried out case by case. Furthermore a total compilation of the questionnaire will be carried out.</p><p>Conclusions:</p><p>We have come to the conclusion that a good working climate, good relations, appreciation and satisfied customers are rated higher than economical incentives. Motivational measures seems to be necessary and the incentives that the hotels are using today could probably undergo some adjustments to better suit what the employees actually desire. Nynäs Havsbad Hotell & Konferens is the one hotel where the matching best agrees with both how the management work with incentives and what the employees actually are being motivated by.</p> / <p>Bakgrund:</p><p>Allt fler företag börjar se världen som dess marknad; både för att söka globala möjligheter men även för att övervaka den globala konkurrensen. De flesta kopplar dock globalisering till export och import av varor, men denna process påverkar även tjänsteföretagandet, däribland serviceyrket. Företagen ställs inför allt högre krav på anpassning i verksamheten vilket i sin tur ställer krav på ständig uppdatering av färdigheter och sakkunskaper, framför allt inom tjänsteproduktion, vilket hotellbranschen i allra högsta grad handlar om. Eftersom motiverade medarbetare utför ett bättre arbete och känner starkare för organisationen kan de därför vara nyckeln till företagets framgång.</p><p>Syfte:</p><p>Huvudsyftet med uppsatsen är att jämföra huruvida hotelledningars valda motivationsstrategier och belöningssystem matchar de incitament och belöningar som de anställda söker. På så sätt kan vi jämföra undersökningsobjekten sinsemellan för att se vilka som bäst lyckas med denna matchning. Delsyftet är vidare att se vilka motivationsåtgärder som generellt uppfattas som mest motiverande bland hotellanställda i de undersökta fallföretagen.</p><p>Metod:</p><p>För att bäst uppnå syftet med uppsatsen har vi valt att göra en multipel fallstudie med såväl kvalitativa som kvantitativa inslag. Intervjuer med hotelldirektörer ställs mot enkätundersökningar bland hotellanställda. Perspektiven tydliggörs genom gapanalyser, fall för fall. Vidare görs en totalsammanställning av enkätundersökningen.</p><p>Slutsatser:</p><p>Undersökningen visar att mjukare värden värderas högre än materiella värden. Motiverande åtgärder förefaller vara nödvändiga och nuvarande belöningssystem bör ses över av respektive hotelledning samt att hänsyn bör tas till medarbetarnas synpunkter. Nynäs Havsbad Hotell & Konferens är det hotell där matchningen bäst överensstämmer kring hur ledningen tillämpar motivations-strategier och vad medarbetarna motiveras av.</p>

Distress tolerance and experiential avoidance are important aspects of the coping process. In the current study, both were examined in relation to Body Mass Index and self-reported disturbances in mood and eating behavior. Distress tolerance was measured behaviorally and via self-report to elucidate the manner in which a) the ability to tolerate emotional distress, and b) the ability to persist behaviorally in the presence of stress-inducing stimuli were related to self-reported levels of depression, anxiety, maladaptive eating habits, and bodily concerns. A sample of 73 undergraduate students participated, and height, weight, and waist circumference were measured. Increased experiential avoidance was associated with increased weight status; however, this was true only for the morbidly obese group (n = 1). Increased experiential avoidance and decreased self-efficacy significantly predicted less rewarding eating experiences. Individuals with lower distress tolerance on the DTS reported increased depression, anxiety, and experiential avoidance, and were more likely to indicate eating disturbances and concerns on self-report measures, although distress tolerance generally was unrelated to eating behaviors as indexed on food diaries. These results were not replicated utilizing a behavioral measure of distress tolerance. Future directions for research designed to examine these variables in overweight and obese populations are discussed.