Dans la maladie de Parkinson (MP), la perte progressive des neurones dopaminergiques (DA) touche principalement la substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). Les symptômes moteurs sont classiquement gérés par une thérapie dopaminergique de remplacement (TDR). Conjointement à la levodopa, l’utilisation d’agonistes dopaminergiques permet de prévenir les complications motrices mais peut être associée à des troubles du système de récompense. Jusqu’à 14% des patients parkinsoniens sous TRD peuvent souffrir de comportement « addiction-like » tels que le pari pathologique, l’hypersexualité ou une prise compulsive de la médication DA. A ce jour la seule solution thérapeutique consiste à diminuer la TRD ce qui détériore les symptômes moteurs. Les neuroadaptations conduisant à ces troubles du système de récompense demeurent mal comprises. Nous proposons un travail dans lequel nous avons évalué les propriétés appétitives de l’agoniste D2/D3 pramipexole (ppx) après une exposition chronique à la L-dopa dans un modèle de rat parkinsonien alpha-synucléine. Dans une première étude, nous avons évalué l’effet d’une stimulation répétée des récepteurs DA sur la sensibilisation du système de récompense en contexte parkinsonien. Nos résultats montrent un effet récompensant du ppx après administrations chronique de L-dopa et perte DA nigrostriatal induite par surexpression de l’alpha-synucléine. Aucune modification transcriptionnelle n’a été observée pour les récepteurs DA. Cependant, nous avons identifié une association entre lésion/traitement pharmacologique et des changements transcriptionnels potentiellement liés à un contexte d’addiction aux psychostimulants. Cette étude fournit des preuves suggérant fortement la lésion parkinsonienne et la thérapie L-dopa comme des facteurs conjointement impliqués dans le remodelage cérébral sous-tendant une préférence de place conditionnée pour le ppx. Les données moléculaires et pharmacologiques générées ont suggéré un rôle clé de la voie glutamatergique dans cette réponse comportementale. Ce résultat est cohérent avec la littérature décrivant un déséquilibre glutamatergique striatal dans les contextes d’addiction aux psychostimulants et de complications motrices associées à la MP. Ainsi, nous avons conçu une deuxième étude visant à investiguer plus avant le potentiel thérapeutique d’une inhibition des récepteurs glutamatergiques. Une lésion bilatérale de la SNc a été réalisée par surexpression de la protéine alpha-synucléine au moyen d’un vecteur AAV. Suite à cette lésion, un traitement chronique à la L-dopa a été réalisé. L’effet de l’antagoniste des récepteurs mGluR5 (metabotropic glutamate receptor 5) MPEP sur les propriétés renforçatrices du ppx a été évalué dans un paradigme de préférence de place conditionnée. Enfin, une analyse des changements d’expression de protéines d’intérêt a été réalisé afin d’associer changements comportementaux drogue/lésion induits et paramètres moléculaires. L’acquisition et l’expression de la préférence de place ppx-induite a été abolie par le MPEP. De plus, nous avons identifié des réseaux neuraux et des modifications d’expression protéiques sous-tendant les plasticités striatales associées à la réponse comportementale. L’ensemble de ces travaux apporte de nouvelles idées sur le contexte physiopathologique associé aux troubles du système de récompense dans la MP. Des données moléculaires et pharmacologiques convergentes suggèrent fortement le mGluR5 comme une cible thérapeutique prometteuse. / In Parkinson’s Disease (PD), the progressive dopaminergic (DA) cell loss mainly affects the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). The motor symptoms are classically managed by DA replacement therapies (DRT). Although adding DA agonists to levodopa treatment may contribute to prevent motor complications, it may be associated with drug‑induced changes in reward related pathways. Up to 14% of PD patients under DRT may suffer from ‘addiction‑like’ behavior such as pathological gambling, hypersexuality or DA medication‑induced substance abuse. To date, the only therapeutic answer consists in lowering the DA medications which deteriorates the motor symptoms. Neuroadaptations leading to reward bias in PD patients under DRT are still poorly understood. To address this challenge, we propose a work in which we have assessed the rewarding effect of the D2/D3 agonist pramipexole (ppx) after chronic exposure to L‑dopa in an alpha-synuclein PD rat model. In a first study, we assessed the effect of repeated DA receptors stimulations on sensitization of the reward system in a parkinsonian context. Our findings demonstrated that ppx had a rewarding effect after chronic L-dopa administrations and alpha-synuclein-mediated nigral loss. No transcriptional changes within DA receptors were highlighted. However, we identified an association between the main drug or lesion and transcriptional changes which were potentially related to the context of psychostimulant addiction. This study provides evidences strongly suggesting that PD-like lesion and L-dopa therapy were concomitant factors involved in striatal remodeling underlying the ppx-induced place preference. Molecular and pharmacological data suggested a key involvement ofthe glutamatergic pathway in this behavioral outcome. These data were consistent with literature describing major striatal glutamate imbalance as a common feature of drug addiction and Parkinson’s disease physiopathological contexts. Hence, we designed a second study aiming to further investigate the therapeutic potential of glutamatergic receptors inhibition. A bilateral lesion of the SNc was performed in the rat using AAV-mediated overexpression of the alpha-synuclein. This lesion was followed by chronic L-dopa administrations. Then, the effect of the metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) antagonist MPEP on ppx reinforcing properties was assessed in a place conditioning paradigm. Finally, analysis at the protein level was conducted to associate drug and lesion induced behavioral changes to molecular endpoints. Acquisition and expression of the ppx-induced place preference was abolished by the MPEP. Furthermore, we identified neural networks and protein changes underlying the striatal remodeling associated with the behavioral outcome. All this work provides new insights into the physiopathological context associated to the PD/DRT related reward bias. Convergent molecular and pharmacological data strongly suggest mGluR5 as a promising therapeutic target.

The thesis describes and analyses a long-term transformative change program conducted at ICI (Australia) Botany Site between the years 1987 - 1997. The change program is unusual in that, after a massive and destructive confrontation between management and the unions, a new collaborative approach to change was developed which led to significant organisational renewal. Change interventions developed in the program have diffused through Australian industry over the decade. The program is analysed within the framework of a theoretical model which describes a path taken towards achieving a capable organisation which can sustain productive performance. The thesis uses evidence from the case to investigate issues of management style, governance, flexibility, 'bundled interventions', productivity, work organisation, downsizing, reward systems, skills acquisition and self-managed teams. A theoretical model of organisational change is developed which suggests how the treatment of these contingencies can lead to organisational capability.

Potential employees use organization career webpages as a first source of information about potential jobs. A content analysis of the career webpages of twenty organizations that recruit from male-dominant occupations and twenty organizations that recruit for female-dominant occupations were examined for gender-specific textual markers and for textual markers for the characteristics of job expectations of comfort, reward and responsibility. Specific focus was made on college recruitment pages for employment into first post-college jobs. This study found that there is an underlying gender issue on organization’s college recruiting online presence. Organizations that have a recruitment strategy to hire women are challenged to appropriately appeal to women in their online recruitment messaging frameworks. Additionally, the rhetoric of job expectations is elusive and so is inadequate to foster the development of accurate expectations for a first post-college job.

Right now a major generational change is taking place within the banking sector. The new generation entering the labor market is often referred to as generation Y and it consists of individuals born between 1980 and 1995. Previous research has shown that the banking industry as a whole put a widespread emphasis on monetary incentives within the reward system. At the same time several studies highlight that individuals from generation Y are rather motivated by primarily non-monetary incentives. The aim of this dissertation is to explain how various monetary and non-monetary incentives affect the motivation of bank employees from generation Y. A positivistic research philosophy has been used with a deductive approach and a quantitative research method. This study indicates that bank employees from generation Y are motivated by retirement savings as well as a personal mentor or chief who draws attention to their development. Their motivation is also affected to some degree by freedom to control their own time. This study even indicates that bank employees from generation Y primarily appreciate the following incentives along with the previously stated: Continuous training, career plan, discount on loans and pay increases The respondents in this study were mainly employees of banks where monetary incentives were not used to any great extent. This can be seen as a limitation as well as the fact that the respondents where solely employed within Swedish banks. Given this, there is a scope for further studies of generation Y within the banking sector. Research regarding which incentives bank employees from generation Y are motivated by, has so far been absent. This dissertation may be of value for banks that want to be at ease that they are doing everything to keep their employees highly motivated. / En stor generationsväxling sker just nu inom banksektorn. Den nya generationen som kommer in på arbetsmarknaden benämns ofta som generation Y och består av individer födda 1980-1995. Tidigare studier har visat att banker i hög utsträckning använder sig av monetära incitament när de vill belöna sina anställda, samtidigt finns det flera studier som framhäver  att  individer  ur  generation  Y  motiveras  av  framför  allt  icke-monetära incitament. Syftet  med  den  här  uppsatsen  är  att  förklara  hur  olika  monetära och  icke-monetära incitament påverkar motivationen hos bankanställda ur generation Y. En positivistisk forskningsfilosofi har använts tillsammans med en deduktiv ansats och en kvantitativ metod. Uppsatsen indikerar att bankanställda ur generation Y motiveras av uppmärksammad utveckling från personlig mentor eller nära chef samt pensionssparande. Motivationen påverkas även i viss mån av frihet att styra sin egen arbetstid. Uppsatsen indikerar även att   bankanställda   ur   generation   Y   framför   allt   värdesätter   följande   incitament tillsammans med de som tidigare nämnts: Kontinuerlig vidareutbildning, karriärplan och rabatt på lån, lönepåslag. En begränsning med uppsatsen är att respondenterna i hög utsträckning var anställda på banker  där   monetära  belöningssystem  inte  används   i  någon  större  utsträckning. Uppsatsens respondenter kommer enbart från svenska banker vilket innebär att det finns utrymme för fortsatta studier av generation Y inom banksektorn ur ett globalt perspektiv. Forskningen om vilka incitament som motiverar bankanställda ur generation Y har hittills varit i stort sett obefintlig, därför kan den här uppsatsen vara av värde bland annat för banker  som  vill  försäkra  sig  om att  de  gör  allt  de  kan  för  att  hålla  sina  anställda motiverade.

Operant conditioning using positive reinforcement techniques has been used extensively in the management of nonhuman primates in both zoological and laboratory settings. Based on a large body of previous research that demonstrates the utility of such techniques in reducing stress, abnormal behavior, and aggression, this research project was intended to develop and test the usefulness of habituation and counter-conditioning techniques in reducing the fear-responses of singly-housed male rhesus macaques living in the laboratory environment. Additionally, we investigated the variable of temperament as it relates to the reduction of fear-responsivity and overall training success. Based on a Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Sign Test, we found that animals exposed to desensitization training were significantly likely to show a reduction in the rate at which they engaged in cringing toward humans (exact significance = .016, one-tailed, N ties = 6), cringing in general (exact significance = .016, one-tailed, N ties = 6), and in stress-related behaviors (exact significance = .016, one-tailed, N ties = 6). Animals exposed to basic husbandry training or exposed to no training at all were not significantly likely to show a reduction in the rates of these behaviors. When these same behaviors were analyzed in terms of duration of behavior, desensitization-exposed animals were significantly likely to show reduction in the amount of time spent cringing toward humans (exact significance = .016, one-tailed, N ties = 6), but not in cringing behaviors in general or in stress-related behaviors. Neither the husbandry-exposed group nor the group exposed to no training showed a significant number of subjects exhibiting a reduction in duration of any of these behaviors. Additionally, initial temperament assessments were found to significantly predict the relative ability of subjects exposed to training to acquire trained behaviors such that animals generally ranked as more inhibited in terms of temperament also ranked as slower learners based on a Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks test, z = -.316, p = .752 (two-tailed). Results of this study could enhance both laboratory animal welfare and laboratory animal research, and could be a first step in developing techniques for reducing fearful behavior in rhesus monkeys in the laboratory environment.

Title from PDF of title page. / Document formatted into pages; contains 106 pages. / Thesis (M.A.)--University of South Florida, 2003. / Includes bibliographical references. / Text (Electronic thesis) in PDF format. / ABSTRACT: The relationship between citizenship performance and overall performance and the relationship between citizenship performance and reward recommendations were investigated, with gender and scale type as possible moderators. Two hundred and fifty-four University of South Florida students were used in this study. The majority of these participants were undergraduate, psychology majors, female, and between the ages of 17 and 23. Participants were given statements describing a teacher's performance and were asked to evaluate the professor on citizenship and overall performance and recommend them for rewards. No support was found for the hypothesis that men would have a stronger relationship than women between citizenship and overall performance. No support was found for the hypothesis that men would have a stronger relationship than women between citizenship performance and reward recommendations. Scale type was not found to influence these relationships. / ABSTRACT: These results are not consistent with the shifting standards model. Numerous suggestions are made for changes to the experiment, including performing a field study instead of a lab study. / System requirements: World Wide Web browser and PDF reader. / Mode of access: World Wide Web.

Title from PDF of title page. / Document formatted into pages; contains 104 pages. / Thesis (M.S.I.E.)--University of South Florida, 2003. / Includes bibliographical references. / Text (Electronic thesis) in PDF format. / ABSTRACT: Medical decision problems are extremely complex owing to their dynamic nature, large number of variable factors, and the associated uncertainty. Decision support technology entered the medical field long after other areas such as the airline industry and the manufacturing industry. Yet, it is rapidly becoming an indispensable tool in medical decision making problems including the class of sequential decision problems. In these problems, physicians decide on a treatment plan that optimizes a benefit measure such as the treatment cost, and the quality of life of the patient. The last decade saw the emergence of many decision support applications in medicine. However, the existing models have limited applications to decision problems with very few states and actions. An urgent need is being felt by the medical research community to expand the applications to more complex dynamic problems with large state and action spaces. / ABSTRACT: This thesis proposes a methodology which models the class of sequential medical decision problems as a Markov decision process, and solves the model using a simulation based reinforcement learning (RL) algorithm. Such a methodology is capable of obtaining near optimal treatment strategies for problems with large state and action spaces. This methodology overcomes, to a large extent, the computational complexity of the value-iteration and policy-iteration algorithms of dynamic programming. An average reward reinforcement-learning algorithm is developed. The algorithm is applied on a sample problem of treating hereditary spherocytosis. The application demonstrates the ability of the proposed methodology to obtain effective treatment strategies for sequential medical decision problems. / System requirements: World Wide Web browser and PDF reader. / Mode of access: World Wide Web.

Die Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der Frage, ob und wie Feedback-basiertes Lernen durch Stress moduliert wird. Der Zusammenhang zwischen Stress und Kognition sowie die zugrunde liegenden biologischen Mechanismen sind Gegenstand der kognitiven Stressforschung. Während der Einfluss von Stress und Stresshormonen auf andere Lernformen bereits gut etabliert ist, gibt es bisher kaum Studien, die Feedback-basiertes Lernen unter Stress bei Menschen betrachtet haben. In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden daher die Auswirkungen akuten Stresses auf diese Lernform untersucht. Es werden gezielt Auswirkungen auf die generelle Akquisition einer Lernaufgabe mittels Feedback, auf die Nutzung sowohl positiven als auch negativen Feedbacks beim Lernen sowie auf die Fähigkeit der flexiblen Anpassung an sich änderndes Feedback betrachtet. Dafür werden in den experimentellen Untersuchungen der Arbeit Feedback-basierte Aufgaben mit einer vorangestellten Induktion akuten psychosozialen Stresses kombiniert. Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit deuten darauf hin, dass akuter psychosozialer Stress das generelle Erlernen Feedback-basierter Aufgaben nicht beeinflusst, jedoch die Nutzung positiven und negativen Feedbacks beim Lernen verändert. Im Speziellen wird negatives Feedback nach einer Stressinduktion weniger genutzt, während über eine möglicherweise stärkere Nutzung positiven Feedbacks aufgrund der vorliegenden Ergebnisse keine fundierte Aussage getroffen werden kann. Zudem finden sich in der vorliegenden Arbeit Hinweise auf einen positiven Zusammenhang zwischen Cortisolwerten und der Flexibilität in Feedback-basierten Lernaufgaben. Als Erklärungsansätze werden veränderte Aufmerksamkeitsprozesse nach einer Stressinduktion sowie andere psychologische Faktoren wie eine kognitive Nachbeschäftigung mit dem Stresstest und eine geringere Involviertheit in die kognitiven Aufgaben diskutiert. Die berichteten Korrelationen zwischen Cortisolwerten und kognitiven Parametern werden dahingehend interpretiert, dass Cortisol ein vermittelnder Faktor des Stresseffekts auf die Nutzung und neuronale Verarbeitung negativen Feedbacks sein könnte. Zur Integration der Ergebnisse aller Studien wird eine Modulation der dopaminergen Signalübertragung durch Stress und erhöhte Cortisolspiegel und damit verbundene Auswirkung auf Feedback-basiertes Lernen vorgeschlagen. Die vorliegende Arbeit gibt zum ersten Mal Hinweise auf eine veränderte Nutzung und Verarbeitung von Feedback nach psychosozialem Stress und bestätigt frühere Befunde eines Zusammenhangs zwischen Cortisol und der Flexibilität beim Lernen.

Sammanfattning - ”Effekter av belöningssystem och säljledare på försäljning av försäkringar              – Försäljningsservice i Bergslagen AB”   Datum: 28 Maj 2015   Nivå: Kandidatuppsats i företagsekonomi, 15 hp   Institution: Akademin för Ekonomi, Samhälle och Teknik, EST, Mälardalens Högskola   Författare: Abdo Ibrahim                       David Kaya                     1 December 1990                 18 Maj 1990   Handledare: Esbjörn Segelod   Titel: Effekter av belöningssystem och säljledare på försäljning av försäkringar – Försäljningsservice i Bergslagen AB   Nyckelord: Belöningssystem, motivation, belöningar, prestationsbaserad lön, fast lön, prestationer, säljcoach, lön och löneformer   Problem: Försäljningsservice i Bergslagen är beroende av sina försäkringsförmedlare för att kunna upprätthålla företagets försäljningsvolymer. För att få de anställda att arbeta mot verksamhetens uppsatta mål är det viktigt att rekrytera rätt personal men även att behålla nyckel personer i företaget. Belöningssystemet är en viktig del för att säkerställa detta. Belöningssystem innefattar bland annat belöningar som används för att styra medarbetarna mot att uppnå företagets syfte. Som ett ytterligare steg använder sig Försäljningsservice i Bergslagen av löneformerna prestationsbaserad lön och fast lön. För att motivera de anställda till att arbeta mer effektivt och öka sin försäljning, som gynnar det egna intresset, används den prestationsinriktade lönen. Utifrån detta valde vi att undersöka effekterna ut av belöningssystemet på försäljningskvantiteten samt prestationen och arbetstillfredsställelsen men även säljledarens påverkan på medarbetarnas försäljningsprestation.   Syfte: Syftet med denna uppsats är att studera hur försäkringsförmedlarnas försäljningsvolym, prestationer och arbetstillfredsställelse påverkas av Försäljningsservice i Bergslagens belöningssystem samt säljledare.   Metod: En fallstudie har utförts med grund i informationsinsamling från personliga intervjuer samt enkäter. Intervjuerna gjordes med delägaren och försäljningschefen på Försäljningsservice i Bergslagen, Elin Gustin samt säljledaren på Försäljningsservice i Bergslagen, Linnea Héléne. Enkätundersökningen riktade sig mot samtliga medarbetare på Försäljningsservice i Bergslagen.   Slutsats: De slutsatser vi kommit fram till är att den prestationsbaserade lönen påverkar medarbetarnas försäljning positivt på grund ut av att den ökar motivationen. Även belöningarna är motivationshöjande och leder till ökade arbetsprestationer. Säljledaren påverkar via sitt arbete direkt säljarnas prestationer. / Abstract –”Effects of the reward system and the sales leader in the sale of insurance – Försäljningsservice i Bergslagen AB”   Date: 28 May 2015   Level: Bachelor thesis in Business Administration, 15 ECTS   Institution: School of Business, Society and Engineering, Mälardalen University   Authors:      Abdo Ibrahim                     David Kaya                     1st December 1990              18th May 1990   Tutor: Esbjörn Segelod   Title: Effects of the reward system and the sales leader in the sale of insurance – Försäljningsservice i Bergslagen AB   Keywords: Reward system, motivation, rewards, performance related salary, fixed salary, performance, sales coach, salary and forms of wages   Problem formulation: Försäljningsservice i Bergslagen is dependent on their sales staff in order to maintain the company's sales volumes. To get employees to work towards the business goals it is important to recruit the right staff but also to retain key employees. The reward system is an important part in ensuring this. Reward system includes rewards that are used to control the employees to achieve the main purpose of the company. As a further step Försäljningsservice i Bergslagen uses forms of wages such as performance-based salary and fixed salary. To motivate employees to work more efficiently and increase their sales, which favors their own interests, they use performance-based salary. Based on this, we chose to examine the effects of the reward system on sales quantity, performance and job satisfaction, but also if the sales coach influence employee sales performances.   Purpose: The purpose of this essay is to study how the insurance intermediaries’ sales volume, performance and job satisfaction are affected by Försäljningsservice i Bergslagens reward system as well as the sales coach.   Method: A case study has been performed with basis in gathering information from personal interviews and a survey. Interviews were conducted with the co-owner and sales manager in Försäljningsservice I Bergslagen, Elin Gustin and sales coach in Försäljningsservice i Bergslagen, Linnea Héléne. The survey was handed to all employees in Försäljningsservice i Bergslagen.   Conclusion: We came to the conclusions that the performance-based salary affect employee sales volumes positively because it increases motivation. The rewards are also motivating and leads to increased job performance. The sales coach also influence directly, through her work, the sales staff performances.

La voie dopaminergique mésolimbique qui prend son origine dans le mésencéphale ventral et qui projette vers des régions rostrales du système limbique fait partie du substrat nerveux qui contrôle la récompense et les comportements motivés. Il a été suggéré qu’un signal de récompense est produit lorsque le patron de décharge des neurones dopaminergiques passe d’un mode tonique à un mode phasique, une transition qui est initiée par l’action du glutamate aux récepteurs N-Méthyl-D-aspartate (NMDA). Étant donné qu’une altération du système de récompense est souvent associée à des anomalies cliniques telles que l’addiction compulsive et à des troubles émotionnels tels que l’anhédonie, nous avons étudié le rôle des récepteurs NMDA dans la récompense induite par la stimulation électrique intracérébrale. Puisque les récepteurs NMDA sont composés de sous-unités distinctes, GluN1, GluN2 et GluN3, nous avons étudié le rôle de deux sous-unités qui sont présentes dans le mésencéphale ventral : GluN2A et GluN2B. Les résultats montrent que des injections mésencéphaliques de R-CPP et de PPPA, des antagonistes préférentiels aux sous-unités GluN2A/B, ont produit une augmentation dose-dépendante de l’effet de récompense, un effet qui était, à certains temps après les injections, accompagné d’une augmentation du nombre de réponses maximales. Ces effets n’ont pas été observés après l’injection d’une large gamme de doses de Ro04-5595, un antagoniste des sous-unités GluN2B. Ces résultats suggèrent que le glutamate mésencéphalique exerce une modulation négative sur le circuit de récompense, un effet dû à son action au niveau des récepteurs NMDA composés des sous-unités GluN2A. / The mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway, originating from the ventral midbrain and projecting to rostral limbic structures, is part of a neural substrate that controls reward and incentive behaviors. It has been suggested that the rewarding effect is produced by a tonic to phasic shift in dopamine cell firing and a transduction process initiated by the action of glutamate at the N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Given that an alteration in reward signaling is often associated with clinical symptoms of compulsive addictive behaviors and emotional disturbances such as anhedonia, we investigated the role of NMDA receptors in reward induced by intracranial electrical stimulation. Since NMDA receptors are composed of distinct subunits, GluN1, GluN2 and GluN3, we investigated the role of the main GluN2 subunits that are expressed in the ventral midbrain, GluN2A and GluN2B. Results show that ventral midbrain injections of R-CPP or PPPA, preferential GluN2A/2B antagonists, produce a dose-orderly enhancement of reward, an effect that was, at some time after the injection, accompanied by an increase in maximum response rates. These effects were not observed following ventral midbrain injections of a wide range of doses of the selective GluN2B antagonist, Ro-04-5595. These findings suggest that ventral midbrain glutamate exerts a negative modulation on reward induced by electrical stimulation of the posterior mesencephalon, an effect most likely mediated by NMDA receptors composed of GluN2A subunits.