Le droit international humanitaire fait partie de ses rares branches du droit international qui bénéficient d’une très large adhésion de la part de la Communauté Internationale et de la société civile. Les juridictions internationales, Cour Internationale de Justice et Tribunal Pénal International, ainsi que la doctrine se sont accordés pour voir dans les règles du droit des conflits armés des normes dotées d’une valeur supérieure aux normes ordinaires. Elles ont ainsi été qualifiées d’obligations erga omnes, de principes intransgressibles du droit international et enfin de jus cogens ou normes impératives. Il ne saurait y avoir de plus grande reconnaissance juridique au sein de l’ordre public international à ce jour. En sus, le droit international humanitaire apparaît comme un des éléments fondamentaux d’une morale internationale dans un monde globalisé. Aux côtés des États et du CICR, la société civile s’est emparée de la question de son respect et même de son développement et nombre d’organisations internationales travaillent en ce sens. On ne pourrait ainsi envisager une situation plus propice à son respect que cette unanime consécration juridique et sociale. Pourtant le droit international humanitaire est violé à chaque seconde qui passe. L’objet de cette thèse est de tenter de réfléchir aux facteurs qui expliquent la récurrence de ces violations, qu’ils soient juridiques, anthropologiques ou sociologiques / International humanitarian law is one of the rare domains of international law which receive almost the entire support of the International Community and the Civil Society. Moreover, almost all of the rules that form international humanitarian law are part of international customary law which is compulsory for all, except for persistent objector. International jurisdictions, International Court of Justice and International Criminal Court, as well as doctrine agree that the rules of the law of armed conflict should be considered of superior value compared to ordinary norms. They have been qualified as obligations erga omnes, intransgressible principles of international law and even as jus cogens or imperative law. One cannot think of a better legal acknowledgment. Furthermore, international humanitarian law, at least its essential principles, appears to be one of the fundamental elements of an international moral in a globalized world. With the States and the ICRC, civil society has seized the question of its respect and even its development and many NGO work for it. We couldn’t contemplate a more favorable situation to ensure its respect that this unanimous legal and social recognition. However, the international humanitarian law is infringed every passing second. The aim of this thesis is to try to study the factors which explain the recurrence of infringements, be them legal, anthropological or sociological

Using both quantitative and qualitative methods of inquiry, this dissertation study undertakes an exploration of the dynamics of the social interaction in discourse co-constructed by pairs of college students in telecollaborative tandem exchanges. Two groups of participants, Mexican learners of English as a foreign language and American learners of Spanish as a foreign language, participated in video-based telecollaborative tandem exchanges where they worked in pairs to discuss topics assigned by their instructors, communicating half the time in Spanish and half in English. According to the principle of reciprocity in tandem learning, the participants switch between the roles of native speaker (NS) expert and non-native speaker (NNS) learner as they invest equal time, effort, and interest in each language part of the chats. Grounded in sociocultural theory (SCT) for second language acquisition (SLA), this study addresses research questions pertaining to (1) the distribution of talk between the members of each pair and between the language parts of the exchange, (2) the distribution of interactional resources deployed by the members of each pair to establish and maintain intersubjectivity and build a relationship, and (3) the individual experiences of participants regarding their positioning in and perspectives of the exchange. Addressing the three research questions allowed the researcher to look at the telecollaborative tandem exchanges from the perspectives of language production, social aspects of interaction, and individual experiences and perspectives to gather a deeper understanding of the tandem context. The analysis of three data sources—survey responses, chat transcripts from one chat of the semester-long telecollaborative tandem project, and post-project participant interviews—shows that the principle of reciprocity posited by tandem theorists as equal time, effort, and interest in each language part underestimates the complexity of the construct as it was created by the participants in the telecollaborative tandem interactions examined in this dissertation study. A mixed methods approach allowed the researcher to deconstruct and reconsider the construct of reciprocity in telecollaborative tandem learning. The telecollaborative tandem exchanges examined in this study were not reciprocal between language parts of the exchange in terms of language production, use of interactional resources, or tandem participant positioning. Instead, they presented complex pair relationships that used language differently in each language part to establish and maintain intersubjectivity, as well as the strong desire of the participants to position themselves and their partners as peers rather than take on the roles assumed to characterize the tandem context; that is, NS as expert and NNS as learner. In accordance with these findings, telecollaborative tandem learning should be approached with an open understanding of the concept of reciprocity in which the participants co-construct their relationship through meaningful social dialogue as peers, rather than through the roles of NS expert and NNS learner. Based on the findings of this study, the expert–learner model of reciprocity may be too rigid and too static for the dynamic context of telecollaborative tandem learning.

<p>Mellan år 1984-2000 ökade andelen aktieägare bland Sveriges befolkning markant, från 29 till 80 %, för att mellan år 2000 och 2008 ligga stabilt runt 80 %. Då allt fler får sin inkomst från kapital och inte endast från arbete borde detta leda till nya normativa föreställningar kring välfärdsstatens utformning och finansiering. Studien jämför kvantitativa studier kring utbredningen av aktieägandet och attityder till välfärdsstatens institutioner och premisser mellan åren 1984-2008. Med aktieägande avses en inkluderande definition av både direkt ägande av enskilda aktieposter samt innehav av fondandelar, såsom pensionsfonder. Studiens primära hypotes är att ökat aktieägande leder till mer negativa attityder till välfärdsstaten. Därtill antas fusket inom välfärdssektorerna öka samt misstänksamheten om fusk tillta medan klasskillnader inom åsikter rörande välfärdsstaten förväntas minska. Centrala teoretiska utgångspunkter är reciprocitet, moralisk ekonomi, historisk institutionalism och spårberoende. Det alltmer utbredda aktieägande liknas vid processer i riktning mot ett massinvesteringssamhälle där vardagen tenderar att finansialiseras alltmer. Studiens resultat ger inget stöd för hypoteserna. Stödet för välfärdsstaten verkar inte ha förändrats nämnvärt under undersökningsperioden. Inte heller verkar klasskillnaderna i åsikter kring välfärdsstaten, fusket inom välfärdssektorerna samt misstänksamheten om fuskets utbreddhet ha förändrats nämnvärt. Dessa resultat beror troligen på flera orsaker. Bland annat tenderar aktieägandet att vara mycket ojämnt fördelat bland Sveriges befolkning.</p> / <p>Between the years 1984-2000 it became increasingly common to own stocks in Sweden. Among the whole population stock ownership increased from 29 to 80 % until year 2000, and was thereafter around 80 % until present day, 2008. As more people receive disposable income not only from labour, but also from capital, their attitudes regarding how the welfare state should be financed and organized, should change. Stock ownership here includes both traditional private stocks and also savings in stock funds. The paper’s main hypothesis is that increased stock ownership will have a negative impact on attitudes towards the welfare state. Also cheating in the welfare sectors and the suspicion about others cheating is believed to increase while class differences concerning attitudes towards the welfare state are believed to diminish. Central theoretical themes are reciprocity, moral economy, historical institutionalism and path dependency. The increased stock ownership is described as a process in the direction towards a mass investment society, where everyday life tends to become financialized to a growing extent. The results show no support for the hypotheses. Attitudes and opinions concerning the welfare state seem to be stable during the whole time period. Neither seems there to be any significant sign of diminishing class differences regarding attitudes towards the welfare state, nor any growing suspicion concerning cheating within the welfare sectors nor any actual growth of cheating. These results might depend on a number of reasons. For one, stock ownership seems to a large extent be unequally distributed among the population of Sweden.</p>

This dissertation is an analysis of the relations between reindeer herding Sami and settled non-Sami in Gällivare parish, Swedish Lapland, 1898-1940. The focus of the dissertation is on the system of skötesrenar, the practice of reindeer belonging to non-Sami being herded by Sami and the subsequent contacts between the two groups. The results presented demonstrate the transformation of the relations between the two groups from mutuai interdependence to mutuai self-sufficiency, and the swiftness with which this change took place. In order to analyse the transformation, reciprocity theory is used. Reciprocity theory concerns the Constitution of relations between different groups, and the basis for such relations. In the early 1900's, the practice of skötesrenar was a well-developed system contributing to the good relations between Sami and non-Sami, as well as to the improvement of the material conditions of those involved. The skötesrenar were important both socially and economically for the persons participating in the system. The huge societal changes that took place during the 20th Century resulted in painful consequences for the relations between the groups. Industrialisation multiplied the number and types of jobs available for the settled non-Sami, while the Sami to a large extent were prevented from partaking of the new opportunities. Industrialisation also caused the decline of the subsistence economy and made the market economy dominant in the locai community. The foundation of the system with skötesrenar had been the mutuai need to meet and exchange goods and services not available within each group; the growth of the market economy altered that. The laws concerning skötesrenar were also changed repeatedly - in 1898, 1917, and 1928 - without regard for the fears by the local community concerning the negative consequences for inter-group relations. Significant changes also took place within Sami society affecting the skötesrenar; the transformation of herding from the intensive to extensive type decreased the participation of women and children in herding, and subsequent erection of permanent residences for Sami families, as well as large annual fluctuations in herd sizes. The present dissertation demonstrates from reciprocity theory that a mutual concern - in this case the skötesrenar - can contribute to the maintenance of a low level of conflict between two ethnically and culturally different parties. Mutual interdependence is a significant factor in upholding a feeling of solidarity. The parties were eager to preserve good mutual relations as conflicts could severely hurt their material conditions. The societal changes taking place meant that by the 1930's the old institutionalised interdependency had ceased to exist. Older people continued the exchanges across group boundaries, but for the rising generation mutuai interaction was replaced by alienation. / digitalisering@umu

Vilken bör vara den centrala sociala normen? Reciprocitet - ömsesidiga relationer till bådas fördel - jämförs med två andra alternativ: altruism och integritet. Altruism - från självuppoffring i nya testamentet och i mycken ideologi till agentneutralitet i modern filosofi - är den etik som oftast förespråkas. Integritetsetik drivs av mer fåtaliga förespråkare som en övergripande filosofi, men har ett omfattande stöd vad gäller individuella liberala rättigheter. Författaren penetrerar argumenten för och mot dessa tre alternativ. • Backas en etik upp med incitament blir den inte altruistisk - men kan en etik få tillräcklig effekt utan incitament?• Vore det bättre att förespråka en mindre ambitiös, men mer realistisk moral?• Finns det något tankemässigt fel i etisk egoism?• Altruistisk etik kanske inte skall ses som riktlinjer för eget handlande, utan försök att få andra att vara oegennyttiga och själv bli förmånstagare?• Kan en irrationell etik paradoxalt nog prestera rationella resultat?Den empiriska delen av denna avhandling undersöker sambandet mellan etiska åsikter och faktiskt beteende. Med ekonomiska spel som hjälpmedel penetreras korrelationen mellan försökspersonernas etiska uppfattningar och deras agerande i tre olika spel; ultimatumspel, diktatorspel och ultimatumspel med förhandling. Etiska ställningstaganden i skilda frågor visar sig vara korrelerade enligt den modell som kopplar ihop olika specifika åsikter till mönster. Försökspersoner klassas först i de tre etiska grupperna och sedan undersöks om det finns signifikanta skillnader i beteendet mellan grupperna. Det visar sig vara fallet, så ett första konstaterande är att etik inte endast är retorik. Den reciproka gruppen ställer signifikant högre krav för att delta i ett samarbete. När ett spelbeslut är en fråga om generositet finns signifikanta positiva samband med altruistiska värderingar. / <p>Diss. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 2002</p>

Mellan år 1984-2000 ökade andelen aktieägare bland Sveriges befolkning markant, från 29 till 80 %, för att mellan år 2000 och 2008 ligga stabilt runt 80 %. Då allt fler får sin inkomst från kapital och inte endast från arbete borde detta leda till nya normativa föreställningar kring välfärdsstatens utformning och finansiering. Studien jämför kvantitativa studier kring utbredningen av aktieägandet och attityder till välfärdsstatens institutioner och premisser mellan åren 1984-2008. Med aktieägande avses en inkluderande definition av både direkt ägande av enskilda aktieposter samt innehav av fondandelar, såsom pensionsfonder. Studiens primära hypotes är att ökat aktieägande leder till mer negativa attityder till välfärdsstaten. Därtill antas fusket inom välfärdssektorerna öka samt misstänksamheten om fusk tillta medan klasskillnader inom åsikter rörande välfärdsstaten förväntas minska. Centrala teoretiska utgångspunkter är reciprocitet, moralisk ekonomi, historisk institutionalism och spårberoende. Det alltmer utbredda aktieägande liknas vid processer i riktning mot ett massinvesteringssamhälle där vardagen tenderar att finansialiseras alltmer. Studiens resultat ger inget stöd för hypoteserna. Stödet för välfärdsstaten verkar inte ha förändrats nämnvärt under undersökningsperioden. Inte heller verkar klasskillnaderna i åsikter kring välfärdsstaten, fusket inom välfärdssektorerna samt misstänksamheten om fuskets utbreddhet ha förändrats nämnvärt. Dessa resultat beror troligen på flera orsaker. Bland annat tenderar aktieägandet att vara mycket ojämnt fördelat bland Sveriges befolkning. / Between the years 1984-2000 it became increasingly common to own stocks in Sweden. Among the whole population stock ownership increased from 29 to 80 % until year 2000, and was thereafter around 80 % until present day, 2008. As more people receive disposable income not only from labour, but also from capital, their attitudes regarding how the welfare state should be financed and organized, should change. Stock ownership here includes both traditional private stocks and also savings in stock funds. The paper’s main hypothesis is that increased stock ownership will have a negative impact on attitudes towards the welfare state. Also cheating in the welfare sectors and the suspicion about others cheating is believed to increase while class differences concerning attitudes towards the welfare state are believed to diminish. Central theoretical themes are reciprocity, moral economy, historical institutionalism and path dependency. The increased stock ownership is described as a process in the direction towards a mass investment society, where everyday life tends to become financialized to a growing extent. The results show no support for the hypotheses. Attitudes and opinions concerning the welfare state seem to be stable during the whole time period. Neither seems there to be any significant sign of diminishing class differences regarding attitudes towards the welfare state, nor any growing suspicion concerning cheating within the welfare sectors nor any actual growth of cheating. These results might depend on a number of reasons. For one, stock ownership seems to a large extent be unequally distributed among the population of Sweden.

The Philippines is a country with a lot to offer within the tourism sector. With its 7107 islands, it offers diversity in culture and a wide range of tourism destinations. However, tourism development in the Philippines has not been as successful as its neighbouring countries. In order to develop the country as an attractive destination, collaboration is needed. The cooperation of different stakeholders as well as the importance of trust and reciprocity is vital for an effective collaboration. Destination development within the tourism industry is seen as a collaboration or cooperation between different stakeholders who in part have something to gain in joining the collaboration. The relationship among the stakeholders may be based on previous interactions. In addition, concerning their respective involvement within the collaboration, theories argue that stakeholders do not necessarily exercise equal participation. With the use of the WOW Philippines campaign as an example of collaboration involving several stakeholders, the theories within collaboration shall be examined. At the same time, the theories will aid in researching the factors that may or may not be responsible for the advancements of thecampaign. The purpose of this thesis is to analyze the different theories within collaboration with the WOW Philippines campaign as an example of a collaborative endeavour. This thesis is addressed to students within the discipline of tourism development for future studies. The researcher has utilized the hypothetico-deductive method which entails the examination of three theories within collaboration. Three hypotheses formulated from these theories will be either confirmed or dismissed in the end of the study. With the help of the hypotheses, the researcher has concluded that aspects of trust and reciprocity within collaboration are vital in its success. Although in this case, it refers to a country’s perception of trust and reciprocity. The problem domain i.e. destination development aiming on increasing inbound tourism cannot be said to be the main reason for the achievements of the campaign. It is a contributing factor, as well as, the involvement of the stakeholders. The theories are acceptable in different levels with regard to the WOW Philippines campaign i.e. they cannot be either taken as individual reasons for its advancements or proclaimed as false. These theories are intertwined which means their relevance to each other is important in the case of tourism development in the Philippines.

<p>Organizational Loyalty is a concept which is becoming increasingly important to discuss in today‘s society; employment agencies and consulting companies are losing staff by the hour however if that is a consequence of not being loyal to the employer, implies that people know what the term Organizational Loyalty actually means. Or not. This thesis‘s purpose was to investigate what Organizational Loyalty is within the consulting trade, to sensitize for the consulting business‘s the different factors that seem to influence loyalty and to give recommendations as to what might be done in order to make employees who work as consultants within the consulting trade experience more loyal to the organization which they are employed at. The analyzed material managed to reveal that loyalty is more than just a word within the consulting trade; it is an important mean of delivering high quality services to a company‘s customers and the only way for employers to attempt making employees more loyal to the organization is by respecting different factors that seem to influence loyalty to the organization and reinforcing these when they are in contact with the employees. By and large, the results suggest that there is a significance of defining Organizational Loyalty as something more than just a term within the consulting business; it is the underlying dimensions that together create the actual meaning of what it is and by knowing what the significance of Organizational Loyalty is, employers might be able to work better for reinforcing loyalty among their employees.</p>

保險業承擔社會大眾轉嫁之風險，其自身亦需要透過風險之分散，以避免危險過度集中，而危及永續經營之能力。而保險市場之專業保險人間，常透過彼此技術之結合運用，達風險分散之目的。其中保險聯營，即為典型聯合數保險人之能量，合力承受特殊危險，協助個別保險人分散風險之方式，亦是目前各國或特定區域之保險業所偏好使用之制度之一。 保險聯營於我國已行之多年，保險業多利用其消納分散巨災或高度風險，抑或配合政府保險政策設立組織，對於我國保險市場而言，具有不可或缺之重要性。然而，保險聯營制度因為譯名與共同保險類似，導致實務對於此兩種同為保險人風險分散之制度產生觀念性之混淆，因無法確切了解其區別，所以產生立法上之錯誤及運作上之爭議。 本文以「保險聯營制度之研究-兼論保險業之風險分散方式」為題，試圖透過深入探討保險聯營制度，並比較其他類似方式，包括共同保險、再保險及交換業務等，以釐清各制度之差異，了解其功能、運作及契約當事人之法律關係；其次則介紹國內風險分散機制，以分析其本質，並就我國保險聯營實務問題為探究與建議。 本文研究結果發現，共同保險、再保險、交換業務及保險聯營制度，即便外觀及功能上多有重疊，但實際上係屬不同之機制。而國內風險分散機制，多數依其運作方式雖得歸類於保險聯營組織，惟究其與會員間之約定，得發現其混合其他風險分散機制之性質，因此不能單純以單一制度視之。關於保險聯營制度之實務問題探討，我國實務因對於「共保」兩字概念涵括範圍定義不一，造成保險法第一百四十四條之一之立法用字有所爭議，本文以為立法條文應儘量以明確用字，降低法律適用模糊的可能性；而聯營組織之型態，應以其功能性區別之，即組織本身若直接承接危險者或有其他對外代表性者，則應成立法人組織，使其享有法人權利，並履行法人義務；最後於公平法限制競爭之探討上，考量到保險聯營設立之特殊性，公平會之審查權限應受限縮，倘聯營組織之設立具備合理性及必要性，且其成效對於社會有顯著正面價值，應可排除公平法之適用。

An emerging body of media scholarship has examined the changing norms and routines of professional journalists, suggesting they are slowly adapting their practice to meet changes in audience expectations brought on by the widespread adoption of social media. Much of this scholarship has focused on traditional news producers, giving attention to journalists and other news producers who work in newsrooms. However slowly, journalists are beginning to welcome more audience participation in the process of news creation, hinting at a more reciprocal form of journalism and a loosening of traditional gatekeeping practices. In an effort to advance the theoretically conceptual research of the moment, this study considers how the perceived journalistic norms and participatory and gatekeeping roles of an emerging journalistic actor may be aligning with and/or deviating from more traditional journalists. The work of entrepreneurial journalists, or those who are not affiliated with or tied to a single news organization but instead freelance their work, is helping to fill major content gaps left by staff cutbacks that came on the heels of news media’s economic downturn. Most notably, specialized areas of journalism such as health reporting are increasingly calling upon entrepreneurial journalists to work aside more traditional journalists. Against the backdrop of health journalism, this study advances by employing semi-structured interviews with traditional journalists, entrepreneurial journalists, and their editors, analyzing recent changes in their journalistic norms and participatory and gatekeeping roles. The findings suggest an ideological split between organizational and entrepreneurial journalists and indicate that organizational journalists and editors alike may be relying on entrepreneurial journalists as innovators. For their part, entrepreneurial journalists may demonstrating an extension of participatory journalism—reciprocal journalism—that could enhance network connectivity and community building for journalists, news organizations, and other mass media practitioners. Though traditionally perceived as outsiders, these journalists may be serving as intrapreneurials, informing innovation in journalism and beyond. The impact of this and other observations on mass communication theory and practice are explored. / text